Cecily Zamora
The social contract theory, a foundational concept in political philosophy, posits that individuals originally lived in a 'state of nature', governed only by natural law. The state of nature is understood as a pre-social and pre-political condition, where individuals were born into an anarchic state, governed solely by natural laws. The laws of nature, as conceived by Thomas Hobbes, are rules based on human reason that, if followed by all, would achieve peace and safety. This understanding of the laws of nature is integral to social contract theory, as it forms the basis for the transition from the state of nature to civil society.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Basis of social contract theory | Natural laws or rules based on human reason that, if followed by everyone, would achieve peace and safety |
| Who proposed the theory | Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau |
| When was the theory proposed | 17th and 18th centuries |
| What is the state of nature | A real or hypothetical condition of human beings before or without political association |
| How to escape the state of nature | Individuals collectively agree to a social contract, giving up their natural rights and agreeing to be governed by a sovereign |
| Role of the sovereign | The sovereign has the authority and power to enforce the social contract and mete out punishments for breaches |
| Rights and duties of citizens | Essential rights and duties of citizens can be deduced from the social contract |
| Relation to democracy | Rousseau's social contract theory is only possible in small states where the people can identify with one another and assemble regularly |
| Relation to morality | The social contract allows individuals to adjust themselves to morality and justice |
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What You'll Learn
The state of nature
The 'state of nature' is a key element of social contract theory, particularly in the work of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It refers to the real or hypothetical condition of human beings before or without political association. While these philosophers' conceptions of the state of nature differ, they all use it to justify and delimit political authority based on individual self-interest and rational consent.
Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher, is famous for his early development of social contract theory, which justifies political principles by appealing to an agreement among rational, free, and equal persons. For Hobbes, the state of nature is characterised by a "war of every man against every man," a violent and competitive condition where each individual has a natural right to everything, regardless of others' interests. Life in this state, according to Hobbes, is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." The only laws that exist in this state are principles based on self-preservation, and there is no overarching authority to enforce any rules. As a result, everyone fears and mistrusts each other, leading to a constant state of war.
Hobbes argues that the state of nature can be left behind through a social contract, where individuals agree to transfer their sovereignty to a higher civil authority, which he calls the "Leviathan." This authority is absolute and possesses the power to enforce laws and punish those who break them. By entering into this contract, individuals can escape the constant threat of violence and enter civil society, establishing peace and safety in society.
John Locke, another English philosopher, also incorporated the concept of the state of nature into his social contract theory. However, he differed from Hobbes in his conception of the state of nature. For Locke, the state of nature is a condition in which humans are free, equal, and independent, but they are also obliged under the law of nature to respect each other's rights to life, liberty, and property. Locke's natural laws are based on reason and the existence of God, and they place obligations on everyone, regardless of governmental imposition. Individuals in Locke's state of nature agree to form a commonwealth and establish an impartial power to arbitrate disputes and redress injuries. The obligation to obey civil government under the social contract is conditional upon the protection of natural rights, including the right to private property.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a French philosopher, also adopted the concept of the state of nature in his social contract theory. Rousseau saw the state of nature as an anthropological account of human history, where humans are born free but are everywhere in chains due to their desire for wealth and social status, leading to oppressive political regimes. He argued that a group must develop a heightened sense of collective identity and cultivate a civil religion to liberate themselves. With this sense of unity, the people themselves should assemble to determine the laws that govern them, ensuring that these laws apply equally to all without exemptions.
In summary, the state of nature is a fundamental concept in social contract theory, representing a pre-political condition of humanity. The theories of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau differ in their specifics, but they all utilise the state of nature to explain the need for political authority and the establishment of social contracts to secure individual rights and peace in society.
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The role of the sovereign
Thomas Hobbes, in his work "Leviathan" (1651), argued for the necessity of an absolute authority in the form of a sovereign. He described the state of nature as a state of war, where human life was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short". In this state, there were no enforceable criteria of right and wrong, and people took for themselves all that they could. According to Hobbes, the only way to escape this brutal state of nature was to submit to the authority of a sovereign, who would impose laws and maintain order. Hobbes believed that the authority of the sovereign should be absolute, with no authority above them, and their will being the law.
John Locke, on the other hand, had a different conception of the state of nature. He saw it as a state in which humans were free, equal, and independent, with a natural obligation to respect each other's rights to life, liberty, and property. Locke argued that individuals form a social contract to leave the state of nature and establish a civil society with an impartial power to arbitrate disputes. He believed that the obligation to obey civil government under the social contract was conditional upon the protection of natural rights, and that sovereigns who violated these terms could be overthrown.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a French philosopher, also offered a unique perspective on the role of the sovereign. He argued that society was only legitimate when based on the sovereignty of the "general will", which is the collective interest of all citizens, rather than their individual interests. Rousseau believed that a group must develop a heightened sense of collective identity and cultivate a common religious sentiment to liberate themselves.
While Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau differ in their specific interpretations, they all contribute to the understanding of the role of the sovereign in social contract theory. The sovereign's role is generally seen as necessary to maintain order, resolve disputes, and protect the rights of individuals within the society. However, the extent of the sovereign's power and the conditions under which it is granted vary among these philosophers.
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The laws that govern nature
The idea of a “state of nature” is central to social contract theory. This state, as conceptualized by various scholars, writers, politicians, and philosophers, was pre-social and pre-political. In the state of nature, individuals lived independently, without adhering to any formal laws or regulations, and their actions were governed solely by what is referred to as the "laws of nature."
Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher, posited that in the state of nature, there were no enforceable criteria of right and wrong. Human life was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short," and people took for themselves all that they could. This state of nature was, therefore, a state of war, which could only be ended if individuals agreed (in a social contract) to give up their liberty to a sovereign, who would safeguard their lives with sovereign power.
Hobbes further argued that humans could advance the laws of nature, or rules based on human reason that, if followed by all, would achieve peace and safety. However, some overarching authority is needed to enforce these laws, as individuals would be vulnerable to attacks from those who did not follow them. Thus, Hobbes proposed the idea of a Leviathan—an immensely powerful governmental entity—that imposes a symmetrical fear of punishment for breaking the laws of nature.
John Locke, another English philosopher, had a different conception of the state of nature and the laws of nature. He saw natural laws as a set of moral rules, discoverable by reason and based on the rationally provable existence of God, that are equally applicable to all. In Locke's view, humans, though free, equal, and independent in the state of nature, are obliged under the law of nature to respect each other's rights to life, liberty, and property.
Social contract theory, therefore, proposes that individuals living in the state of nature, governed by the laws of nature, collectively agree to establish society and a government by entering into a social contract. This contract involves surrendering certain rights and submitting to the authority of a ruler or majority in exchange for protection and the maintenance of social order.
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The social contract as an implicit agreement
The social contract is a foundational concept in political philosophy, developed by thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It holds that individuals originally lived in a "State of Nature", governed only by natural law, where life was often insecure.
In the mid-1600s, Hobbes argued that humans can advance what he called the "laws of nature", or rules based on human reason that, if followed by all, would achieve peace and safety. However, some overarching authority is needed to enforce these laws. In the absence of any political authority, or in the "state of nature", following the laws of nature would make a person vulnerable to attacks from those who did not follow them. Thus, individuals should embrace a social contract, agreeing to give their liberty into the hands of a sovereign, on the sole condition that their lives are safeguarded by sovereign power.
Locke's conception of natural laws differed from Hobbes. Locke saw natural laws as a set of moral rules, discoverable by reason and based on the rationally provable existence of God, that are equally applicable to all. He viewed the state of nature as a state in which humans, though free, equal, and independent, are obliged under the law of nature to respect each other's rights to life, liberty, and property. Locke held that the obligation to obey civil government under the social contract was conditional upon the protection of the natural rights of each person, including the right to private property.
Rousseau's social contract theory emphasizes that citizens, once they have grown up and seen how the city conducts itself, can choose whether to leave or stay. Staying implies an agreement to abide by the laws and accept the punishments that are meted out. This contract is constituted by two distinguishable contracts. Firstly, they must agree to establish society by collectively and reciprocally renouncing the rights they had against one another in the State of Nature. Secondly, they must imbue a person or assembly of persons with the authority to enforce the initial contract.
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The social contract as a means to escape the state of nature
The social contract is a political philosophy that serves as a means to escape the state of nature. It is an agreement between the ruled and their rulers, defining the rights and duties of each. The social contract theory is associated with English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, and the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
The state of nature is a real or hypothetical condition of human beings before or without political association. It is an essential element of social contract theories, and the visions of the state of nature differ sharply between theorists. For Hobbes, the state of nature is characterised by the "war of every man against every man", a violent and constant state of competition where each individual has a natural right to everything, regardless of the interests of others. Life in the state of nature is, as Hobbes states, "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short". The only laws that exist in the state of nature (the laws of nature) are principles based on self-preservation.
Hobbes argues that humans can advance what he calls the laws of nature, or rules based on human reason that, if followed by all, would achieve peace and safety. However, some overarching authority is needed to enforce these laws. In the absence of political authority, or in the state of nature, following the laws of nature would make a person vulnerable to attacks from those who did not follow them. Thus, it would be advantageous for individuals to authorise a Leviathan, or a powerful governmental entity, to impose a symmetrical fear of punishment for breaking the laws of nature.
Locke, on the other hand, conceives of the state of nature as a state in which humans are free, equal, and independent, and are obliged under the law of nature to respect each other's rights to life, liberty, and property. Individuals agree to form a commonwealth and leave the state of nature to institute an impartial power capable of arbitrating disputes and redressing injuries. Locke held that the obligation to obey civil government under the social contract was conditional upon the protection of the natural rights of each person, and sovereigns who violated these terms could be overthrown.
The social contract allows individuals to leave the state of nature and enter civil society. To ensure their escape from the state of nature, individuals must agree to live together under common laws and create an enforcement mechanism for the social contract and the laws that constitute it. This involves imbuing a sovereign or assembly of persons with the authority and power to enforce the contract and mete out punishments for breaches of the contract.
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Frequently asked questions
The social contract theory is a foundational concept in political philosophy, developed by thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It posits that individuals originally lived in a "State of Nature", governed only by natural law, where life was often insecure. To escape this state, individuals agreed to a social contract, establishing a government and society.
The state of nature is a real or hypothetical condition of human beings before or without political association. It is an anarchic state where individuals are born free and equal but lack formal laws and regulations. The state of nature is often described as a state of war, with each individual having a natural right to everything, leading to a constant and violent competition.
The laws of nature, or natural laws, are the principles that govern individuals in the state of nature. Thomas Hobbes argued that humans can advance and follow certain rules based on human reason, such as seeking peace and respecting each other's rights, which would achieve peace and safety. However, an overarching authority is needed to enforce these laws, which is where the social contract comes into play.
The social contract theory justifies political authority by arguing that individuals consent to give up their natural rights and freedoms to a sovereign or government in exchange for protection, security, and order. This transfer of power is based on the idea that individuals act in their self-interest to escape the chaotic and insecure state of nature.
