Keith Mack
Natural Law Theory is a moral theory that can be held and applied to human conduct by both theists and atheists. The atheist uses reason to discover the laws governing natural events and applies them to thinking about human action. Those that go against such natural laws are morally wrong, and actions in accordance with them are morally correct. Theists, on the other hand, believe in a deity that created nature and its laws, and so obedience to those laws is morally correct. This raises the question: can one be a natural law theorist and an atheist?
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Natural law theory can be held by both theists and atheists | N/A |
| Atheists use reason to discover the laws governing natural events and apply them to thinking about human action | N/A |
| Actions in accord with natural law are morally correct | N/A |
| Atheists believe that humans have the ability to reason and that the laws of nature are discernible | N/A |
| The fundamental good, according to Thomas Hobbes, is self-preservation | N/A |
| Laws of nature direct humans towards the fundamental good | N/A |
| Natural law theorists have at least three answers available to them: the Hobbesian, the subjectivist theory of the good, and the derivationist knowledge of the natural law | N/A |
| Some philosophers and theologians criticise atheists for believing in objective goodness | N/A |
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What You'll Learn
Natural law theory and atheism are compatible
Natural law theory and atheism are indeed compatible. Atheists who are natural law theorists use reason to discover the laws that govern natural events and apply them to their thinking about human action. They believe that human beings have the ability to reason and that the laws of nature are discernible through this reasoning. Actions that are in accordance with these natural laws are considered morally correct, while those that go against them are deemed morally wrong. This is distinct from the theistic perspective, where a deity is believed to have created all of nature, including the laws that govern it, and obedience to these laws is seen as the morally correct path.
While some may argue that atheists who believe in objective goodness are incoherent, this criticism is not universally accepted. Atheists can have reasons to be good and believe in goodness without presupposing the existence of God. The belief in objective goodness does not necessarily prove the existence of a deity, and some atheists disagree with this line of argumentation.
Natural law theory, as a moral theory, can be held independently of one's religious beliefs. John Austin, for example, was a legal positivist who denied the Overlap Thesis but held a natural law ethical theory. He explicitly endorsed the view that the legal validity of a norm is not dependent on its conformity with morality. Austin's utilitarianism, inherited from J.S. Mill and Jeremy Bentham, suggests that utilitarian principles can be derived from facts about human nature.
Thomas Hobbes, another influential natural law theorist, held that the laws of nature are divine law and that all humans are bound by them. He argued that the fundamental good is self-preservation and that the laws of nature guide us towards this good. Hobbes also acknowledged the immense variation in human desires but believed that our common nature and physiological constitution lead us to share some desires, which can form the basis of rational precepts.
In conclusion, while natural law theory has been traditionally associated with theistic perspectives, it is not exclusively tied to them. Atheists can adopt a natural law theory approach by using reason to discover and apply the laws of nature to their moral framework. The compatibility of natural law theory and atheism highlights the flexibility of philosophical and ethical thought, accommodating a range of beliefs and worldviews.
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Theists and atheists can both apply natural law theory to human conduct
For theists, natural law theory often involves the belief in a deity that created all of nature and its laws. Obedience to these laws and any supplements provided by the deity is seen as morally correct. This view is exemplified by the work of Thomas Aquinas, who argued that human laws are only valid if they conform to the content of natural law.
Atheists, on the other hand, may use reason to discover the laws governing natural events and apply them to their actions. They believe that humans have the reasoning ability to discern the laws of nature and that acting in accordance with these laws is morally correct. This perspective aligns with the work of John Austin, an early legal positivist who held a natural law ethical theory while denying the overlap thesis, which states that the legal validity of a norm depends on its conformity with morality.
Despite their differing beliefs, both theists and atheists can utilise natural law theory as a framework for understanding and guiding human conduct. Theists look to a deity for moral guidance, while atheists rely on their reasoning abilities to discern the laws of nature. In both cases, natural law theory provides a basis for determining what actions are morally correct or wrong.
It is worth noting that some philosophers and theologians have argued that atheists are incoherent in believing in objective goodness while rejecting the existence of God. This criticism, however, pertains more to philosophy than morality and does not imply that atheists are less likely to act morally. Nonetheless, it is a point of contention in the debate surrounding natural law theory and the role of religious belief in shaping moral conduct.
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Natural law theory and natural law legal theory are distinct
Natural law theory is a term used to describe a certain class of ethical theories. It is a theory that can be held and applied to human conduct by both theists and atheists. Theists believe in the existence of a deity that created nature and the laws that govern it, and thus, obedience to those laws is deemed morally correct. On the other hand, atheists believe that humans possess the reasoning ability to discern the laws of nature and apply them to their actions. Actions that are in accordance with these natural laws are considered morally correct, while those that go against them are deemed morally wrong.
Natural law legal theory, or conceptual naturalism, asserts that a norm that does not conform to the natural law cannot be legally valid. This theory holds that human laws are only valid to the extent that their content aligns with the natural law. For example, Thomas Aquinas, a natural law legal theorist, stated that "every human law has just so much of the nature of law as is derived from the law of nature. But if in any point it deflects from the law of nature, it is no longer a law but a perversion of law".
While many natural law moral theorists are also natural law legal theorists, the two theories are logically independent. This means that one can reject natural law theory in the legal sense while still upholding a natural law theory of morality. An example of this is John Austin, a prominent early legal positivist. Austin rejected the Overlap Thesis, which states that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. However, he endorsed an objectivist moral theory, inheriting his utilitarian philosophy from J.S. Mill and Jeremy Bentham.
In conclusion, natural law theory and natural law legal theory are distinct concepts that address different aspects of human conduct and the validity of laws. While natural law theory focuses on the ethical implications of human actions, natural law legal theory concerns the relationship between human laws and the laws of nature.
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Natural law theory and objective goodness
The concept of natural law is deeply rooted in the idea of an objective morality that is independent of human interpretation. Natural law theorists, such as Aquinas, argue that the natural law constitutes the basic principles of practical rationality for human beings. According to Aquinas, the first precept of natural law is the imperative to do good and avoid evil. He believes that what is good and evil is derived from the rational nature of human beings, making good and evil both objective and universal. This view aligns with the Maturidi school of Sunni theology, which posits the existence of an "objective" law that humans can comprehend without divine revelation.
However, the subjectivist theory of the good, associated with Hobbes, challenges this notion. Subjectivists argue that what is considered good is determined by individual desires, likes, and pro-attitudes. Despite the variation in human desires, subjectivists claim that common human nature and similarities in physiological constitution lead to shared desires that can form the basis of rationality and, consequently, natural law. This perspective acknowledges the role of human nature in shaping the understanding of "good" and "evil."
Natural law theorists like John Finnis develop their theories based on a set of basic goods, such as life, knowledge, play, aesthetic experience, sociability, practical reasonableness, and religion. These goods are considered self-evident and universally applicable across all human cultures and periods. The point of moral principles, according to Finnis, is to provide an ethical framework for pursuing these basic goods and resolving conflicts that may arise in their pursuit.
The concept of natural law is not limited to moral theory but also extends to legal theory. Aquinas, for instance, believed that human laws are valid only if they conform to the content of natural law. This idea is reflected in the work of legal scholars like Fortescue, who emphasized that the objective of legislators is to dispose people to virtue through law. However, it's important to note that natural law theory of morality and natural law theory of law are logically independent. One can reject the latter while accepting the former, as demonstrated by legal positivists like John Austin, who denied the overlap between legal validity and conformity to morality.
In conclusion, natural law theory and the concept of objective goodness are intricately linked. While there are differing perspectives on the nature of goodness, natural law theorists generally agree that there are fundamental principles of practical rationality that guide human behavior and are rooted in an understanding of objective good and evil.
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Natural law theory and utilitarianism
While natural law theory and utilitarianism differ in their fundamental principles, they do share some similarities. Both theories recognise the importance of happiness and pleasure, albeit in different ways. Aquinas, in his natural law theory, defines happiness as "an activity of the soul in accordance with reason and virtue", and believes it is achieved through the "beatific vision of God". This definition influences the precepts of his ethical theory, which include the preservation of life, the promotion of good, and the avoidance of evil. Similarly, Bentham's utilitarianism is centred on the idea that actions should aim to increase happiness and pleasure, which are seen as the "'sovereign masters' guiding human behaviour.
However, a key difference between the two theories lies in their understanding of morality. Natural law theory, particularly in the Aristotelian tradition, asserts the existence of universal principles of right conduct that hold everywhere and always. Aquinas, for example, believes that certain actions, such as killing the innocent, lying, adultery, sodomy, and blasphemy, are always wrong. In contrast, utilitarianism takes a more consequentialist approach, judging the morality of an action based on its consequences rather than inherent principles. According to utilitarianism, an action is moral if it leads to a greater amount of good or happiness, even if the action itself may be considered immoral by societal standards.
Another point of divergence between natural law theory and utilitarianism is their underlying assumptions about human nature. Natural law theory, especially in the hands of Aquinas, is deeply rooted in theology and the belief that natural law is given by God and is authoritative over all human beings. This implies a certain level of objectivity and universality in moral standards. In contrast, utilitarianism, as espoused by Bentham and Mill, derives its principles from observations about human nature and the belief that pain and pleasure are the ultimate arbiters of human behaviour. This suggests a more subjective and relativistic approach to morality, where the "right" action is determined by its ability to maximise pleasure or happiness.
Furthermore, the two theories differ in their treatment of rules and consequences. While natural law theory, as exemplified by Aquinas, acknowledges the role of practical reasoning and the consideration of the greater good, it aligns more closely with Kantian ethics in prioritising intention over consequences. In other words, an action with good intentions but negative consequences may still be considered morally flawed from a natural law perspective. Conversely, utilitarianism, particularly act-utilitarianism, is more likely to disregard moral rules if breaking them leads to a greater overall good. This reflects the utilitarian maxim that "the end justifies the means".
In conclusion, natural law theory and utilitarianism represent two distinct ethical frameworks. Natural law theory, as developed by Aquinas, emphasises the objectivity and universality of moral standards derived from human nature and the natural world. It intersects with legal theory and prioritises intention, virtue, and adherence to universal principles. On the other hand, utilitarianism, as proposed by Bentham and refined by Mill, focuses on maximising happiness and pleasure, regardless of the means. Utilitarianism takes a more consequentialist and subjective approach, judging actions based on their ability to produce the greatest good or happiness. While both theories share a concern for happiness, they differ significantly in their underlying assumptions, treatment of rules, and understanding of morality.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, one can be a natural law theorist and an atheist. Atheists who are natural law theorists use reason to discover the laws governing natural events and apply them to thinking about human action. Actions in accord with such natural laws are morally correct, and those that go against them are morally wrong.
The laws of nature that guide human actions include the law of survival and the natural action for living things to maintain themselves and reproduce.
Many philosophers and theologians argue that atheists who believe in objective goodness are being incoherent. This criticism is based on the idea that the existence of goodness is proof of God's existence.
Natural law theorists, including Thomas Hobbes, argue that there are certain things that would be necessarily desired by biologically sound human beings. These desires are central to human aims and can form the basis of important precepts of rationality.
