Cecily Zamora
Utilitarianism and natural law theory are two ethical theories that, despite stemming from different schools of philosophical thought, share some structural similarities. Both assume an objective moral order, suggesting that in every situation, there is a universal right and wrong course of action. For example, a utilitarian and a natural law theorist may both choose to help an elderly woman cross the street, as the utilitarian would see it as the greatest good, and the natural law theorist would see goodness and the preservation of life as reasons to offer assistance. However, the differences between the two theories are profound, with utilitarianism focusing on pleasure or happiness as the ultimate goal, while natural law theory, as proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas, suggests the existence of an Eternal Law from which natural and civil laws derive.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Objective moral order | Both theories assume an objective moral order, meaning there is a universal right and wrong in every situation. |
| Calculation | Both involve a form of calculation or reasoning to determine the correct course of action. |
| Rules | Mill's rule-utilitarianism proposes following societal and moral rules for the greater good, while act-utilitarianism may disregard these rules. |
| Extremes | Utilitarianism's "felicific calculus" is an extreme form of weighing a moral decision, while natural law theorists rely on conscience and virtue. |
| Similarities and differences | The two theories have structural similarities, but their differences are more profound. |
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What You'll Learn
Similarities and differences between utilitarianism and natural law theory
Utilitarianism and natural law theory are two ethical theories that have both similarities and differences. Utilitarianism, first proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789 and later refined by John Stuart Mill, argues that pleasure or happiness must be pursued regardless of the means of achieving it. This is known as felicific calculus, which involves weighing the pros and cons of a moral decision to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
On the other hand, natural law theory, proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, supports the concept of an Eternal Law from which natural law and civil law derive. This theory emphasizes individual moral judgment and the timeless virtues and worth of each person. While both theories are teleologically oriented towards happiness, they differ in their definitions of happiness. Utilitarianism seeks to maximize pleasure or happiness for the majority, while natural law theory focuses on making correct moral judgments for each individual based on conscience and virtue.
One key difference between the two theories lies in their fundamental propositions. Utilitarianism employs felicific calculus, a rational calculation of costs and benefits, while natural law theory proposes a virtue-based approach, emphasizing timeless moral virtues. In practice, this means that a utilitarian might focus on the potential benefits of an action, such as keeping found money to donate to charity, while a natural law theorist would prioritize honesty and consider the consequences of their actions.
Despite their differences, there are some similarities between the theories. Both recognize the importance of happiness and moral decision-making, even if they define happiness differently. Additionally, both theories can accommodate secular and theological perspectives, offering a flexible framework for ethical reasoning.
In conclusion, while utilitarianism and natural law theory share some common ground, their contrasting definitions of happiness and divergent approaches to moral reasoning set them apart. The differences between these two ethical theories are profound, particularly when considering the emphasis on individual virtue in natural law theory versus the utilitarian focus on aggregate pleasure or happiness.
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The objective moral order
Utilitarianism, first proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789, argues that pleasure or happiness must be pursued regardless of the means of achieving it. This theory involves a concrete process of weighing moral decisions, known as felicific calculus, where the "ends justify the means". Act utilitarianism is more likely to disregard moral rules to achieve the greatest good, while rule utilitarianism, as refined by John Stuart Mill, proposes that rules should be followed if they contribute to the overall greatest good.
Natural law theory, on the other hand, stems from the 13th-century work of St. Thomas Aquinas, who proposed the idea of an Eternal Law from which natural and civil laws derive and can be reasoned from. Natural law theorists also go through a process of moral decision-making, but it is based on conscience and reason rather than a pro/con calculus.
Despite their differences, these theories share structural similarities. For example, a utilitarian and a natural law theorist may both help an elderly woman cross the street, as the utilitarian seeks the greatest good, and the natural law theorist values goodness and the preservation of life. Similarly, a person following either theory might return a $20 bill they found, as the utilitarian could decide to do the most good by doing charity, and the natural law theorist could appeal to the virtue of honesty and consider the consequences.
While it is possible for adherents of these theories to arrive at the same moral action, the differences between utilitarianism and natural law theory are profound. The former focuses on pleasure and happiness, while the latter is grounded in the idea of an Eternal Law. Nonetheless, both theories assume an objective moral order, demonstrating a shared belief in universal moral truths.
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Act-utilitarianism vs rule-utilitarianism
Utilitarianism, proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789, argues that pleasure (or happiness) must be pursued no matter the means of achieving it. This theory has two variants: act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism.
Act utilitarians believe that whenever deciding what to do, one should perform the action that will create the greatest net utility. In their view, the principle of utility should be applied on a case-by-case basis. The right action in any situation is the one that yields more utility (i.e., creates more well-being) than other available actions. For example, an act utilitarian would consider reducing the suffering imposed on animals, but they might still eat other people's leftovers because it increases their happiness without harming animals. Act utilitarians are more likely to disregard moral rules to achieve the greatest good.
Rule utilitarians, on the other hand, adopt a two-part view that stresses the importance of moral rules. They believe that a specific action is morally justified if it conforms to a justified moral rule, and a moral rule is justified if its inclusion into our moral code would create more utility than other possible rules or no rule at all. For instance, a rule utilitarian might decide to become vegetarian to reduce animal suffering and would never eat meat. Rule utilitarianism is considered more practicable as it does not require weighing each possible outcome every time, which can be time-consuming and impractical.
The primary difference between the two theories is that act utilitarians evaluate individual actions in isolation, while rule utilitarians evaluate rules and then assess individual actions by their adherence to those rules. Act utilitarians focus on the consequences of each act alone, while rule utilitarians consider the broader implications of following certain rules.
Despite their differences, both theories aim to create the best results possible and can lead to similar moral actions in certain situations. For example, helping an elderly woman cross the street would be considered the greatest good by both an act utilitarian and a natural law theorist.
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The role of conscience in moral decision-making
Natural Law and Utilitarianism are two distinct ethical theories. Natural Law is based on the belief that human intelligence can discern what is right or wrong, and that morality is inherent in nature. On the other hand, Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory that asserts the morally right action is one that produces the most good, or, in other words, brings about the greatest amount of good for the greatest number.
The Role of Conscience in Natural Law
In the context of Natural Law, the conscience is seen as an intellectual utterance that guides moral decision-making. It is not a physical determinant of action but a law operating as a motive to the will, obliging and binding yet not constraining. This means that while individuals have the freedom to act, their actions should be guided by their conscience, which is informed by their knowledge and understanding of what is right and wrong.
For example, in the context of Catholic marriage law, which is based on a 'physical' interpretation of Natural Law, the use of contraceptives by married couples is forbidden because it is considered a transgression against the natural purpose of the sexual organs, which is believed to be reproduction. Here, the conscience of an individual, informed by their understanding of Natural Law, would guide their decision-making regarding the use of contraceptives.
The Role of Conscience in Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism focuses on the consequences of actions and the role of motives in moral decision-making. While motives may not play a role in determining the morality of an action, utilitarians can still foster particular motives if they increase overall happiness. For instance, Bentham's question, "Can they suffer?" highlights how the ability to suffer is more important than the ability to reason when considering moral actions.
The role of conscience in Utilitarianism is, therefore, informed by an individual's intention and their understanding of the consequences of their actions. Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures also suggests that certain actions, like causing pain to animals, are universally considered immoral, and an individual's conscience would guide them away from such actions.
In conclusion, while Natural Law and Utilitarianism differ in their fundamental principles, the conscience plays a crucial role in both theories by guiding moral decision-making. In Natural Law, the conscience is informed by an individual's understanding of inherent morality in nature, while in Utilitarianism, it is shaped by the intention behind an action and its consequences, particularly in relation to overall happiness.
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The 'ends justify the means' maxim
Utilitarianism and natural law theory are ethical theories that, despite belonging to different schools of philosophical thought, share some structural similarities. Both theories assume an objective moral order, suggesting that in every situation there is a universal right and wrong course of action. This means that, in some cases, a person following utilitarianism and a person following natural law theory may end up making the same moral choice.
Utilitarianism, first proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789, argues that pleasure (or happiness) must be pursued regardless of the means used to achieve it. This theory falls under the “ends justify the means” maxim, where the ends refer to the outcome or consequence of an action, and the means refer to the actions or decisions taken to achieve that outcome. According to utilitarianism, an action is morally right if it leads to the greatest amount of happiness or utility for the greatest number of people. This is often referred to as the "greatest good". For example, a utilitarian might argue that lying to protect someone's feelings (the means) is justified if it results in a happier outcome (the ends).
Act-utilitarianism, a specific form of utilitarianism, is particularly likely to endorse the "ends justify the means" approach. It holds that moral rules can be disregarded if breaking them leads to a greater overall happiness. Rule-utilitarianism, on the other hand, proposes that societal, civil, and moral rules should be followed as long as they contribute to the greatest good.
Natural law theory, as proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, supports the idea of an Eternal Law from which natural law and civil law are derived through reason. While natural law theorists also go through a process of weighing moral decisions, this process is based on reason and conscience rather than a simple pro/con calculation. For example, consider a person who finds money in a mall. A utilitarian might weigh the benefits of keeping the money for charity against turning it in, while a natural law theorist would consider the virtue of honesty and the consequences of both actions.
While utilitarianism and natural law theory share some similarities, their differences are more profound. The "ends justify the means" maxim endorsed by utilitarianism can lead to ethical dilemmas where harmful actions are deemed acceptable if they produce a positive outcome. For instance, a government might justify imposing strict laws that restrict certain freedoms if it results in enhanced public safety and reduced crime rates. However, deontological theories, such as natural law, hold that some actions are inherently wrong regardless of their outcomes. This suggests that, despite their similarities, it may be challenging to fully support both utilitarianism and natural law theory simultaneously.
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Frequently asked questions
Utilitarianism, first proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789, argues that pleasure or happiness must be pursued regardless of the means of achieving it. Natural law theory, on the other hand, as proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, suggests the existence of an Eternal Law from which natural and civil laws derive and can be reasoned from.
Both theories assume an objective moral order, implying that in every situation, there is a universal right and wrong course of action. This can lead adherents of both theories to choose the same moral action in certain contexts. Additionally, both theories involve a form of calculation or reasoning to determine the appropriate course of action.
Consider an elderly woman who needs assistance crossing the street. A utilitarian would argue that helping her would result in the greatest good, while a natural law theorist would view goodness and the preservation of life as reasons to offer assistance. In this case, adherents of both theories would likely help the elderly woman.
Utilitarianism employs a pro/con calculus, weighing the benefits and drawbacks of different options. In contrast, natural law theory relies on an individual's conscience and the virtues and consequences associated with potential actions.
While there are structural similarities between the two theories, their underlying philosophical foundations differ. Utilitarianism emphasizes happiness as the ultimate goal, while natural law theory focuses on deriving laws and moral actions from an Eternal Law. Therefore, it is challenging to strictly adhere to both theories simultaneously, as they may sometimes prescribe conflicting courses of action.
