Alexander The Great: Lawbreaker Or Legend?

Alexander the Great, or Alexander III of Macedon, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia. He was one of the greatest military generals of all time, and his conquests and brief reign changed the course of history. In his 13 years as king, Alexander created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.

Alexander's legacy is a complex one. On the one hand, he was a brilliant military strategist who never lost a battle. On the other, he was a ruthless conqueror who wreaked havoc on the Achaemenid Persian Empire and left a power vacuum in his wake, leading to civil wars between his generals and the fragmentation of his empire.

So, did Alexander the Great break any laws? It's hard to say for certain, as our understanding of ancient laws and legal systems is limited. However, it's safe to assume that Alexander's actions would have been considered unlawful by the people he conquered. He invaded and conquered territories that did not belong to him, destroyed cities, and implemented his own systems of governance. While he may have operated within the legal framework of his own kingdom, the laws he broke are likely those of the kingdoms and empires he defeated.

Alexander the Great's death

The death of Alexander the Great has been the subject of much debate, with historians offering various theories on the cause of his demise. On either the 10th or 11th of June, 323 BC, Alexander the Great died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon at the age of 32.

In the weeks leading up to his death, Alexander fell ill and suffered from a fever, chills, sweats, exhaustion, and high fever—symptoms typical of infectious diseases such as typhoid fever, which was common in ancient Babylon. Other possible causes of his death include malaria, alcoholic liver disease, strychnine poisoning, and acute pancreatitis brought on by heavy alcohol consumption.

The circumstances surrounding Alexander's death have given rise to suspicions of poisoning. Several theories implicate members of his inner circle, including one of his wives, his generals, his illegitimate half-brother, or the royal cup-bearer. However, the theory of poisoning is disputed, as poisons available at the time that could induce fever would likely not have resulted in a 12-day illness.

Alexander's death left his vast empire in a state of disarray. Without a clear successor, his generals usurped control and divided his territories into various Hellenistic states, leading to civil wars and the eventual disintegration of the empire.

Alexander's invasion of Persia

Alexander the Great's invasion of Persia began in 334 BC, when he crossed the Hellespont into Asia with an army of around 50,000 soldiers, including cavalry and naval forces. This marked the start of a series of campaigns against the Achaemenid Persian Empire that would last for 10 years.

Alexander's invasion began with a series of decisive victories against the Persians. In 334 BC, he defeated the Persians at the River Granicus, swiftly conquering all of Asia Minor. The following year, he defeated the Persian King, Darius III, at the River Issus, before capturing Egypt. In 331 BC, Alexander defeated Darius again at the Battle of Gaugamela, annexing all of Persia. He then pursued Darius into Central Asia, but failed to capture him before he was assassinated by one of his generals.

Alexander's treatment of the Persians

Alexander the Great's treatment of the Persians was largely conciliatory. After defeating the Persians at the Battle of Issus, Alexander took Darius' family into his care, treating them with chivalry. Alexander also adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Persians, marrying the daughters of the Achaemenid monarchs Darius III and Artaxerxes III. He also appointed Ada, the widow and sister of the satrap Idrieus, as ruler of Caria, and allowed her to adopt him as her son.

Alexander's adoption of Persian customs, however, cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. Alexander's adoption of Persian dress and manners, including the custom of proskynesis, was seen as intolerable by the Macedonians. Alexander's attempt to impose the Persian court ceremonial on the Greeks and Macedonians was a failure, and he was forced to abandon it.

Alexander's generals

Alexander the Great's generals, also known as the Diadochi, were the rival generals, families and friends of Alexander who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BC. The Diadochi include:

• Antipater, who was an adviser to Alexander's father, Philip II, and continued in this role under Alexander. Antipater was named Regent of Macedon and General of Greece in Alexander's absence.
• Craterus, an infantry and naval commander under Alexander during his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire. After the revolt of his army at Opis on the Tigris in 324, Alexander ordered Craterus to command the veterans as they returned home to Macedonia.
• Perdiccas, who was a somatophylax (bodyguard) of Alexander and was named Regent after Alexander's death.
• Antigonus I Monophthalmus, the oldest and most powerful of the Diadochi. Antigonus and his son, Demetrius, took control of almost all of Alexander's empire until they were defeated by a coalition of Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander and Lysimachus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC.
• Ptolemy, a close friend and general of Alexander. Ptolemy kidnapped Alexander's body and transferred it to Alexandria, where he built a majestic tomb for the conqueror. Ptolemy established the Ptolemaic Kingdom and his dynasty ruled Egypt for over two centuries.
• Seleucus I Nicator, who took control of the eastern part of the empire, including Mesopotamia, after Alexander's death. Seleucus founded the Seleucid Empire, which lasted until Pompey the Great's conquest of Syria in 63 BC.
• Cassander, son of Antipater, who controlled Macedon and all of Greece for a brief period after Alexander's death.
• Lysimachus, who gained control of Thrace after Alexander's death.
• Eumenes of Cardia, Alexander's former secretary, who received Cappadocia and Paphlagonia.
• Leonnatus, who led a force to relieve Antipater during the Lamian War. Leonnatus was killed in action.
• Peithon, who received Media.
• Antigenes, who received Susiana.
• Peucestas, who received Persis.
• Tlepolemus, who had charge of Carmania.
• Atropates, who governed northern Media.
• Archon, who governed Babylonia.
• Arcesilaus, who governed northern Mesopotamia.
• Porus, who governed the kingdom of Paurava in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent and aided Alexander during his Indian campaign.
• Taxiles, who governed the kingdom of Taxila in the Punjab region and also aided Alexander during his Indian campaign.
• Oxyartes, Alexander's father-in-law, who governed Gandara.
• Sibyrtius, who governed Arachosia and Gedrosia.
• Stasanor, who governed Aria and Drangiana.
• Philip, who governed Bactria and Sogdia.
• Phrataphernes, who governed Parthia and Hyrcania.
• Asander, who received Caria.
• Menander, who received Lydia.
• Laomedon, who received Syria and Phoenicia.
• Neoptolemus, who received Armenia.
• Amyntas, son of Andromenes.
• Amyntas, son of Nicolaus.
• Amyntas of Lyncestis.
• Alexander of Lyncestis.
• Polemon, son of Andromenes.
• Polemon, son of Theramenes.
• Demaratus, a Corinthian who acted as a mediator between Philip and Alexander during their quarrel.
• Hegelochus of Macedon.
• Neoptolemus, a general.
• Nicanor, son of Parmenion.
• Philip, son of Machatas.
• Philoxenus, a general.
• Tlepolemus, a general.
• Attalus, son of Andromenes.
• Asclepiodorus of Macedon.

Alexander's legacy

Alexander the Great's legacy extended far beyond his military conquests, and his reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek culture and influence.

Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 square kilometres, and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.

The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian. The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect. Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands, and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek. Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic.

Alexander's conquests also had a significant impact on the regions of Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdom. On the Silk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridised with Iranian and Buddhist cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the 3rd century BC to the 5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilisation and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world. The resulting syncretism, known as Greco-Buddhism, influenced the development of Buddhism and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art.

Alexander's influence extended to Roman rulers, who sought to associate themselves with his achievements. Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb of Alexander, and Caracalla believed himself to be the actual reincarnation of Alexander.

Alexander's reputation as one of the greatest military strategists in history is also part of his enduring legacy. In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. Alexander placed the phalanx at the centre and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line. By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.

Alexander's reputation for charisma and force of personality are also part of his legacy. His troops were extremely loyal, believing in him throughout all hardships. Alexander's ambition drew inspiration from the gods, and he displayed a deep interest in learning and encouraged the spread of Hellenistic culture.

Alexander's reputation as a ruthless leader is also part of his legacy. While he could be ruthless and impulsive, he was also sensible. Hugely ambitious, he drew inspiration from the gods, and displayed a deep interest in learning and encouraged the spread of Hellenistic culture.

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