Caesar's Legal Boundaries: Breaking Laws?

Julius Caesar is known for his famous quote, If you must break the law, do it to seize power; in all other cases, observe it. Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 BC is a prime example of this. Knowing that crossing the river with his army would be considered insurrection, treason, and a declaration of war, Caesar chose to do so anyway, forcing Pompey, the consuls, and a large part of the Roman Senate to flee Rome. This decision led to Caesar becoming dictator for life. Caesar's constitutional reforms also show his willingness to break the law to seize power. He assumed more authority, weakened Rome's other political institutions, and stuffed the Senate with his allies.

Crossing the Rubicon: an illegal act of war

Julius Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon River in January of 49 BC was a pivotal moment in history, marking an illegal act of war with far-reaching consequences for Rome. The river, located in modern-day Italy, was more than just a geographical boundary; it represented a critical legal threshold.

During the late Roman Republic, the Rubicon River served as the official border between the Roman province of Cisalpine Gaul to the northeast and the areas governed directly by Rome and its allies to the south. This meant that provincial governors, like Caesar, were prohibited from bringing their armies across the river into Italy. Doing so was considered an act of insurrection and treason, with severe repercussions.

On January 10, 49 BC, Caesar stood on the banks of the Rubicon with his soldiers, facing a pivotal choice. He knew that crossing the river with his troops would be a direct violation of Roman law and would likely spark a civil war. Remaining in Gaul, however, would mean forfeiting his power to his enemies in Rome.

Caesar chose to cross the river, making a deliberate decision to break the law. This act of war had profound implications for Rome, leading to a civil war between Caesar and the Roman nobility, led by Pompey the Great. Caesar's forces had already occupied Ariminum, a town in Italy, the day before he crossed, but his personal crossing symbolised the point of no return.

Caesar's illegal act of crossing the Rubicon with his legion of soldiers had far-reaching consequences. It set in motion a chain of events that ultimately led to the end of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. Caesar's victory in the civil war solidified his position as Dictator Perpetuus of Rome, marking a significant shift in the political landscape.

Caesar's constitutional reforms

Julius Caesar's constitutional reforms were a series of laws enacted between 49 and 44 BC, during his dictatorship. Caesar's constitutional framework was informed by his early career observations of the chaotic and dysfunctional Roman Republic. The central government had become powerless, the provinces were independent principalities under their governors' absolute control, and the army had replaced the constitution as the means to political ends. Caesar's constitutional reforms were intended to achieve three goals:

• Suppress all armed resistance in the provinces and bring order to the Republic
• Create a strong central government in Rome
• Unite the entire Republic into a single cohesive unit

To accomplish these goals, Caesar needed to consolidate his control over the government. He did this by increasing his authority and decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Caesar held both the Dictatorship and the Tribunate, alternating between the Consulship and the Proconsulship. He was first appointed dictator in 49 BC, and in 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed dictator for life.

Caesar also controlled the process of nominating candidates for magisterial elections, appointed his supporters to the senate, and prevented hostile measures from being adopted by the assemblies. He gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which carried the powers of the Censorship, allowing him to appoint his partisans to the senate and fill it with his supporters. Caesar also increased the number of magistrates elected each year, creating a large pool of experienced magistrates from which he could choose his allies.

Caesar's reforms also included economic and welfare policies. He reduced the number of people on welfare in Rome, ruled that new welfare recipients had to wait for someone to leave the program, and sent those disqualified overseas. He also improved housing for the poor, ruled on debts and lending, and carried out public works projects, including the Forum of Caesar, a shopping complex in Rome's centre.

Caesar also reformed the calendar, basing it on astronomical observations rather than religious considerations. He gave Roman citizenship to those who had been subjected by Rome, including Gauls and the inhabitants of many individual towns. He also recruited new senators from outside Italy, much to the aristocracy's dismay.

Caesar's civil war

Pompey and his allies induced the Senate to demand that Caesar give up his provinces and armies in early 49 BC. Caesar refused and instead marched on Rome. The war was fought in Italy, Illyria, Greece, Egypt, Africa, and Hispania. The decisive events occurred in Greece in 48 BC: Pompey defeated Caesar at the Battle of Dyrrhachium, but the subsequent larger Battle of Pharsalus was won by Caesar, and Pompey's army disintegrated.

Caesar pursued Pompey to Egypt, where he was murdered upon arrival. Caesar then went to Asia Minor, where he defeated Pharnaces II, who had invaded Cappadocia, Armenia, eastern Pontus, and Lesser Colchis. Caesar's victory was swift, and he quipped, "I came, I saw, I conquered".

Caesar returned to Rome, but a few months later, now with the title of dictator, he left for Africa, where his opponents had rallied. In 46 BC, he crushed their army at Thapsus and returned to Rome. He then left for Spain to deal with a fresh outbreak of resistance, which he crushed at Munda in 45 BC.

Caesar's dictatorship

Julius Caesar's dictatorship began in 49 BCE when he first assumed the role of dictator. However, he resigned after 11 days, long enough to secure his election as consul for the following year. Caesar's dictatorship was reinstated after he defeated Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE. This time, he was appointed dictator for a year.

In 46 BCE, Caesar was appointed dictator for ten years, and in 44 BCE, he was named dictator for life (dictator perpetuo). This was an unprecedented appointment in Roman history. Caesar's accumulation of honours and power led many to believe he was becoming more of a divine figure than a ruler.

Caesar's assassination

Julius Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 B.C. by a group of Roman senators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, Gaius Cassius Longinus, and Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus. Caesar was stabbed 23 times and died at the base of the Curia of Pompey in the Theatre of Pompey.

On the day of the assassination, Caesar was late, and the conspirators anxiously waited for his arrival. Despite warnings from a seer and his wife's nightmare about his death, Caesar decided to attend the Senate meeting. As he took his seat, the conspirators gathered around him under the pretext of presenting a petition. They then stabbed him multiple times, with Brutus striking the final blow.

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