Migration And Jim Crow: Breaking Laws, Changing History

The Great Migration, also known as the Great Northward Migration or the Black Migration, was the movement of six million African Americans from the rural Southern United States to urban areas in the North, Midwest, and West between 1910 and 1970. This mass movement was largely caused by the poor economic and social conditions African Americans faced in the South, where Jim Crow laws upheld racial segregation and discrimination. So, did the Great Migration break Jim Crow laws?

The Great Migration's impact on the demographics of the US

The Great Migration, also known as the Great Northward Migration or the Black Migration, was a demographic shift in the United States between 1910 and 1970. During this period, approximately six million African Americans left the rural Southern United States and migrated to urban areas in the North, Midwest, and West. This movement significantly altered the demographic landscape of the country, with the African-American population becoming highly urbanized.

Prior to the Great Migration, from the late 1800s until 1910, over 90% of African Americans lived in the American South, constituting the majority of the population in Louisiana, South Carolina, and Mississippi. However, by the end of the Great Migration, this number decreased to just over half, with the remaining population distributed between the North and the West.

The primary factors driving the Great Migration were the poor economic and social conditions in the South, stemming from pervasive racial segregation, discrimination, and violence. The Jim Crow laws, enacted following the withdrawal of Union troops from the South in 1876, legalized segregation and disenfranchisement of African Americans in the region. These laws restricted their political, economic, and social mobility, perpetuating oppressive conditions.

The migration was also influenced by labor shortages in northern factories during World War I, which created new job opportunities for African Americans in industries such as steel mills, railroads, meatpacking plants, and the automobile industry. Northern companies actively recruited southern workers, offering incentives such as free transportation and low-cost housing.

The Great Migration had a significant impact on the demographics of the destination cities as well. The majority of migrants settled in some of the largest cities in the United States at the time, including New York City, Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia. This influx of African Americans led to the establishment of culturally influential communities and changed the social and cultural dynamics of these cities.

The Great Migration also contributed to the development of new forms of racial politics and Black culture in the North. Cities that had been predominantly white at the start of the century became centres of Black culture and political activism by mid-century. The migration fueled cultural movements such as the Harlem Renaissance and the Chicago Black Renaissance, with Black Americans expressing their creativity and finding new avenues for advancement in their adopted homes.

The role of violence and intimidation in Jim Crow laws

The Jim Crow laws, which were in effect from the late 19th century until 1968, legalized racial segregation and led to the marginalization of African Americans. These laws were often enforced through violence and intimidation, which played a significant role in maintaining the oppressive system.

The roots of Jim Crow laws can be traced back to the Black Codes, which were strict local and state laws that controlled various aspects of the lives of formerly enslaved people, including their work, compensation, movement, and living situations. These codes laid the foundation for the institutionalized discrimination and violence that would characterize the Jim Crow era.

During the Reconstruction era, violent insurgent paramilitary groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan, White League, and Red Shirts, played a crucial role in suppressing the black vote and perpetuating a climate of fear and intimidation. They employed tactics such as lynching, vandalism, and attacks on black citizens to instill terror and maintain white supremacy.

The period known as "Red Summer" in 1919 exemplified the role of violence and intimidation. This period was marked by increased race riots and lynchings, with white authorities falsely accusing black communities of conspiring to conquer white America. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) noted the prevalence of lynchings during this time and sent investigators to the South to gather evidence.

The Jim Crow system was not just about legal segregation; it also enforced a set of etiquette norms that reinforced the power dynamic between whites and blacks. These norms dictated various aspects of daily life, such as how people interacted, addressed each other, and used public spaces. Violating these norms could result in severe consequences, including violence and even death.

The Jim Crow laws and etiquette were upheld through a criminal justice system that was entirely white, from the police to the judges. This lack of representation made it difficult for African Americans to seek justice or protection from the law, further entrenching the power dynamics and maintaining the oppressive status quo.

The Great Migration, which took place between 1910 and 1970, was a response to the violence and oppression of Jim Crow laws. During this period, approximately six million Black people left the American South and moved to Northern, Midwestern, and Western states in search of better economic opportunities and to escape racial violence and discrimination.

The economic impact of the Great Migration on the South

The Great Migration, also known as the Great Northward Migration or the Black Migration, saw six million African Americans leave the rural Southern United States for urban areas in the North, Midwest, and West between 1910 and 1970. This mass movement had a significant economic impact on the South.

Loss of Labour Force

The Great Migration resulted in a substantial loss of labour for Southern states. African Americans made up the majority of the population in Louisiana, South Carolina, and Mississippi before the migration, and across the South, they constituted over 90% of the population. This provided the South with a large, cheap, and subservient workforce. African Americans performed gruelling agricultural tasks, such as picking cotton, working on rice and tobacco plantations, and logging. They also worked as sharecroppers, domestic servants, and in other service roles. The loss of this workforce created economic challenges for Southern landowners and employers, who had to resort to coercive tactics to retain their workers.

Economic Challenges for Landowners

The departure of African Americans from the South disrupted the region's economic structure, particularly in the agricultural sector. The loss of labour caused by the Great Migration led to a decline in agricultural production and profitability for Southern landowners. This was further exacerbated by the boll weevil infestation, which devastated cotton crops, and flooding. Landowners also lost revenue due to the departure of sharecroppers, who paid rent and a percentage of their harvest in exchange for living and working on the landowners' property. With fewer sharecroppers, landowners had less income, and the departure of sharecroppers also meant a reduced labour force for agricultural work.

Social and Cultural Impact

The Great Migration had a significant social and cultural impact on the South as well. The loss of a significant portion of the African American population affected the region's social dynamics and cultural landscape. This impact was particularly pronounced in states like South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas, which had high proportions of African American residents. The migration also contributed to the decline of the sharecropping system, as the loss of workers made it difficult to sustain this form of agriculture.

Response of Southern Elites

In response to the Great Migration, Southern elites and employers implemented various measures to retain their workforce. They increased wages to match those offered in the North and even opposed some of the worst excesses of Jim Crow laws to make the South more appealing to African Americans. However, when these measures failed, they resorted to more coercive tactics, such as interfering with mail delivery to prevent the circulation of Northern newspapers that advertised better job opportunities, restricting train travel, and using intimidation tactics to dissuade African Americans from leaving.

Long-Term Effects

The Great Migration contributed to significant demographic changes in the South over time. By 1970, the African American population in the South had decreased to just over half of the total, with the other half spread across the North and West. This shift had long-term economic implications, as it reduced the availability of cheap labour in the South and forced employers and landowners to adapt to a changing economic landscape.

The social and economic conditions that led to the Great Migration

The Great Migration was one of the largest movements of people in United States history. Approximately six million Black people moved from the American South to Northern, Midwestern, and Western states roughly from the 1910s until the 1970s. The driving force behind the mass movement was to escape racial violence, pursue economic and educational opportunities, and obtain freedom from the oppression of Jim Crow.

The Great Migration is often broken into two phases, coinciding with the participation and effects of the United States in both World Wars. The First Great Migration (1910-1940) had Black southerners relocate to northern and midwestern cities including: New York, Chicago, Detroit, and Pittsburgh. When the war effort ramped up in 1917, more able-bodied men were sent off to Europe to fight, leaving their industrial jobs vacant. The labor supply was further strained with a decline in immigration from Europe and standing bans on peoples of color from other parts of the world. All of this afforded the opportunity for the Black population to be the labor supply in non-agricultural industries.

Although the migrants found better jobs and fled the South entrenched in Jim Crow, many African Americans faced injustices and difficulties after migrating. The Red Summer of 1919 was rooted in tensions and prejudice that arose from white people having to adjust to the demographic changes in their local communities. From World War I until World War II, it is estimated that about 2 million Black people left the South for other parts of the country.

World War II brought an expansion to the nation’s defense industry and many more jobs for African Americans in other locales, again encouraging a massive migration that was active until the 1970s. During this period, more people moved North, and further west to California's major cities including Oakland, Los Angeles, and San Francisco, as well as Portland, Oregon and Seattle, Washington. Within twenty years of World War II, a further 3 million Black people migrated throughout the United States.

The role of Black-owned media in the Great Migration

The Great Migration, also known as the Great Northward Migration or the Black Migration, was a movement of six million African Americans from Southern states to urban areas in the North, Midwest, and West between 1910 and 1970. The Black press played a crucial role in this historical event.

The first Black-owned and operated newspaper, Freedom's Journal, was founded in 1827 to advocate for the abolition of slavery. Historians estimate that over 500 Black newspapers were established in the 35 years between 1865 and the start of the 20th century. These publications challenged the objectivity of mainstream newspapers, which were largely written by and for white audiences. The Black press deliberately took a non-objective stance, advocating for Black communities and taking a deliberate slant in their reporting.

During the Great Migration, Black-owned media played a significant role in "pulling African Americans together after slavery into cohesive communities," according to historian Christopher Reed. Publications like the Pittsburgh Courier, which had a weekly circulation of over 300,000 by 1929, helped to fuel the migration to the North after World War I. Black newspapers also tackled Hollywood's derogatory depictions of African Americans as early as 1914.

The success of Black-owned media continued into the 20th century, with magazines like Ebony, Essence, and Jet attracting large audiences. Ebony reached 1.7 million homes in 1985, amounting to over 40% of African-American adults, a higher percentage than any other general-interest magazine at the time.

Today, Black-owned media continues to play an important role, with 205 publications members of the NNPA, the trade organization representing the Black press in the U.S. While declining ad revenue and circulation numbers have impacted the industry, Black newspapers still reached over 20 million people weekly in print as of 2014, and digital readership is an emerging area of focus.

In conclusion, Black-owned media has played a vital role in the Great Migration and continues to be an important source of news, advocacy, and community-building for African Americans.

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