Cameron Miranda
The Panama Canal, completed in 1914, is an interoceanic waterway that connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It has been a vital conduit for global trade, reducing maritime travel time and costs. The construction of the canal was a significant engineering feat, and its completion symbolized US technological prowess and economic power. However, the canal's history is also marked by political tensions and disputes over control, particularly between the United States and Panama. These tensions eventually led to the negotiation of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, which granted Panama eventual control of the canal. While the canal has undergone expansions and policy changes over the years, it remains a crucial link in global trade networks.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of construction | 1903–1914 |
| Date of completion | 1914 |
| Date of official opening | 15 August 1914 |
| Date of official celebration | March 1915 |
| Length | 80 km (50 mi) |
| Time taken for ships to pass through | 11.38 hours (as of 2017) |
| Location | Panama |
| Countries connected | Colombia, Panama |
| Oceans connected | Atlantic, Pacific |
| Treaties | Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850), Hay-Herrán Treaty (1903), Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903), Torrijos-Carter Treaties (1977) |
| Notable figures | Ferdinand de Lesseps, President Ulysses S. Grant, President Theodore Roosevelt, Secretary of State John Hay, Philippe Bunau-Varilla, President Jimmy Carter, Omar Torrijos, President George H.W. Bush, Manuel Noreiga |
| Events | Suez Crisis (1956), Martyr's Day riots (1964), Expansion Program (2007) |
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What You'll Learn
The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903
The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was the culmination of a series of events that began with the failed French attempts to build a canal through Panama, which was then a province of Colombia. Led by Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal, the French faced engineering challenges, tropical diseases, and bankruptcy, ultimately abandoning the project in 1889. Bunau-Varilla, who had been involved in the earlier de Lesseps canal attempt, became an important shareholder in the Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama, which still held the concession for building a canal in Panama.
In 1903, the United States negotiated the Hay-Herrán Treaty with Colombia, offering to lease a strip of land for the canal in exchange for financial reimbursement. However, the Colombian government rejected the treaty as an infringement on its national sovereignty and inadequate compensation. This rejection set off a chain of events, with Bunau-Varilla meeting Manuel Amador, the leader of the Panamanian independence movement, and providing funding for a renewed Panamanian revolt. With tacit American support, Panama proclaimed its independence, and the United States formally recognized the new republic.
Bunau-Varilla, appointed as the Panamanian ambassador to the United States, negotiated the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which provided the United States with a 10-mile-wide strip of land for the canal, a one-time payment of $10 million to Panama, and an annual annuity of $250,000. The treaty also guaranteed Panama's independence and gave the United States governance over the Canal Zone. While the treaty established the framework for the construction of the Panama Canal, it became a source of conflict between the two nations, with Panamanians seeking greater sovereignty over the canal and the surrounding zone.
The tensions over the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty eventually led to the negotiation of subsequent treaties, such as those in 1936 and 1955, which aimed to address some of the concerns raised by Panama. However, it was not until 1977 that the Torrijos-Carter Treaties were signed, abolishing the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty and paving the way for the gradual transfer of control of the Canal Zone to Panama.
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The Torrijos-Carter Treaties
The first treaty, officially known as "The Treaty Concerning the Permanent Neutrality and Operation of the Panama Canal," is commonly referred to as the "Neutrality Treaty." This treaty declared the canal a neutral waterway, open to vessels of all nations. The United States retained the right to defend the canal and ensure priority passage in military emergencies.
The second treaty, the Panama Canal Treaty, transferred control of the canal from the U.S. to Panama, ensuring Panamanian sovereignty. This treaty addressed the long-standing grievances of Panamanians, who felt that the Canal Zone rightfully belonged to their country.
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US-Panama relations
The Panama Canal has been a vital conduit for global trade since its completion in 1914. By linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the canal has significantly reduced maritime travel time and costs, facilitating economic growth and international commerce. The canal was constructed between 1903 and 1914, with the United States acquiring the rights to build and operate it during the first years of the 20th century. The Hay-Herrán Treaty, negotiated with Colombia in 1903, granted the US rights to the land surrounding the planned canal. However, the Colombian Senate refused to ratify the treaty, leading to Panama's independence from Colombia and the signing of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty in 1903, which established permanent US rights to the Panama Canal Zone.
The construction of the Panama Canal was a significant achievement for the United States, showcasing its technological prowess and economic power. However, US control of the canal eventually became a source of tension in US-Panama relations. Many Panamanians questioned the validity of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty and felt that the Canal Zone rightfully belonged to Panama. These grievances culminated in riots on Martyr's Day, January 9, 1964, when around 20 Panamanians and 3-5 US soldiers were killed. The riots were sparked by a dispute over the right to fly the Panamanian flag in the Canal Zone, leading to a brief interruption in diplomatic relations between the two countries.
Following the riots, the United States and Panama negotiated a new treaty to replace the 1903 Treaty. These negotiations were challenging due to the sensitive nature of the Canal Zone issue and the differing perspectives held by the two countries. Despite these challenges, the Torrijos-Carter Treaties were signed on September 7, 1977, by President Jimmy Carter of the United States and Omar Torrijos of Panama. The treaties represented a significant moment of cooperation between the two nations, granting Panama eventual control of the Panama Canal.
The implementation legislation for the Torrijos-Carter Treaties was signed into law by President Carter on September 27, 1979. However, relations between the two countries became strained again after the death of Torrijos in 1981. In December 1989, President George H.W. Bush ordered an invasion of Panama to remove Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega from power. It wasn't until 1999 that relations improved, and the Canal was finally turned over to the Panamanians, who have administered it since.
In recent years, there have been disputes over the fees imposed by Panama for using the canal. In 2024, Panamanian President José Raúl Mulino defended the fee increases, stating that they were necessary to accommodate modern shipping needs. While some have suggested that the United States should retake control of the canal, experts agree that this is highly unlikely, given the strong Panamanian sovereignty over the canal and the potential for negative repercussions in the relationship between the two countries.
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Student protests and riots
One notable instance of student involvement in the Panama Canal riots occurred in 1958 when the Panamanian Union of University Students planted Panamanian flags in the Canal Zone. This act of defiance led to a standoff between the Panamanian National Guard and the students occupying the university. Similar incidents occurred in 1959 during a celebration of Panamanian independence, where mobs attacked the U.S. Embassy, ripped down its flag, and damaged several U.S.-owned businesses. These early protests and riots set the tone for further unrest to come.
The year 1964 marked a significant escalation in student-led protests and riots related to the Panama Canal. On January 7, American students from Balboa High School in the Panama Canal Zone raised the American flag in front of their school, sparking outrage among Panamanian students. Two days later, on January 9, Panamanian students organized a protest march, entering the Canal Zone and causing property damage. This led to confrontations with the Canal Zone police and sparked riots that spread throughout Panama City and Colon. The riots resulted in the destruction of two million dollars' worth of property and the deaths of at least 20 people, including both Panamanians and U.S. soldiers.
The 1964 riots were a pivotal moment in the ongoing dispute over control of the Panama Canal Zone, and they had a lasting impact on U.S.-Panamanian relations. The unrest culminated in the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, which were negotiated and signed in 1974 and 1977, respectively. These treaties marked a significant step toward resolving the long-standing tensions and ultimately led to the United States relinquishing control of the Canal Zone.
Additionally, student protests and riots in Panama were not limited to the immediate vicinity of the Canal Zone. In 1968, student demonstrations and rioting broke out in some of the slum areas of Panama City following the removal of President Arnulfo Arias by the National Guard. These internal political issues further complicated the treaty negotiations, which remained in limbo until 1971.
Overall, student protests and riots were a direct response to the perceived injustice of U.S. control over the Panama Canal and the surrounding area. These demonstrations played a crucial role in bringing attention to Panamanian sovereignty and national pride, ultimately contributing to the creation of laws and treaties that addressed these long-standing grievances.
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US imperialism
The Panama Canal, completed in 1914, was a significant feat of engineering that reduced maritime travel time and costs, facilitating global trade and commerce. The canal was built by the United States, which acquired the rights to its construction and operation during the early 20th century. The process of acquiring these rights and the subsequent control of the canal by the US can be seen as a form of imperialism.
Treaty Negotiations and Colombian Opposition
The United States negotiated treaties with Colombia, then including Panama, to secure the rights to build the canal. The Hay-Herrán Treaty of 1903 granted the US a 100-year lease on a six-mile-wide strip of land for the canal. However, the financial terms were unfavorable to Colombia, and the Colombian Senate refused to ratify the treaty. Despite acting within its legal rights, Colombia faced threats of invasion and occupation by the US if it did not agree to the terms.
Support for Panamanian Independence
Faced with Colombian opposition, the US supported the cause of Panamanian independence. US President Theodore Roosevelt dispatched warships to Panama's Atlantic and Pacific coasts and prewrote a constitution that gave American forces intervention rights in Panama. This show of force contributed to Panama's declaration of independence in 1903.
The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty
Following Panama's independence, the US quickly signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the new Panamanian government in 1903. This treaty established permanent US rights to a Panama Canal Zone and gave the US control over a 10-mile-wide strip of land. The Panamanian representative, Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, lacked formal consent from the Panamanian government and had not lived in Panama for 17 years, raising questions about the validity of the treaty.
Control and Operation of the Canal
The Panama Canal was completed in 1914 and operated by the US for most of the 20th century. While it symbolized US technological prowess and economic power, tensions with Panama grew over US control of the canal. Panamanians questioned the validity of the treaty and felt that the canal and the surrounding zone rightfully belonged to their country. These grievances led to riots and a brief interruption of diplomatic relations in 1964.
The Torrijos-Carter Treaties
In the 1970s, US President Jimmy Carter negotiated the Torrijos-Carter Treaties with Panamanian leader Omar Torrijos. These treaties represented a shift in US policy, eventually giving Panama control of the canal and helping to defend against charges of imperialism. However, relations between the two countries remained contentious, and the US invaded Panama in 1989 to remove Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega from power. It was not until 1999 that the canal was turned over to Panamanian administration.
In summary, the creation of the Panama Canal was a complex and protracted process shaped by US imperialism. While the canal facilitated global trade, it also led to decades of tension and conflict between the US and Panama. The ultimate transfer of control to Panama in the late 20th century marked a step towards resolving these issues and recognizing Panamanian sovereignty.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, the construction of the Panama Canal led to the creation of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903, which provided the United States with a 10-mile-wide strip of land for the canal, a one-time payment of $10 million to Panama, and an annual annuity of $250,000. The treaty also guaranteed Panama's independence.
Yes, the construction and operation of the Panama Canal also led to the creation of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, which were ratified by the US Senate in 1978 and signed into law in 1979. These treaties gave Panama eventual control of the Panama Canal, which was turned over to the Panamanians in 1999.
Yes, in addition to the aforementioned treaties, there were also several treaties and laws created to address issues related to the Panama Canal. For example, in 1964, President Johnson announced plans to negotiate with Panama to replace the 1903 Treaty. There were also various concessions and agreements made over the years to defuse rioting and protests related to the Canal.
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