Gavin Howe
Thomas Aquinas is widely regarded as the West's most eminent natural law theorist. In his work, he inherited and built upon the natural law traditions of ancient philosophy, including Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic schools of thought. Aquinas's natural law theory, outlined in his masterwork Summa Theologiae, revolves around the idea that natural law is an aspect of divine providence and a guide for human action. He believed that nature is organized for good purposes and that God created and governs the world through divine reason. Aquinas's concept of natural law holds that because humans possess reason, a spark of the divine, all human lives are sacred and of infinite value. His ideas on natural law have significantly influenced Western philosophy, theology, and political thought.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Thomas Aquinas' role in natural law | Aquinas is regarded as the West's pre-eminent theorist of natural law. He synthesised and condensed the ideas of his predecessors into his Lex Naturalis (natural law). |
| Aquinas' influences | Aquinas was influenced by Aristotle, and sought to introduce Aristotelian ideas to science, nature and theology. He was also influenced by Cicero, and quoted him in his summary of medieval natural law. |
| Aquinas' works | Aquinas' most famous work is the Summa Theologica (or Summa Theologiae), which runs to around 3,500 pages. He also wrote a work on government, inspired by Aristotle's Politics, in 1267. |
| Aquinas' views on natural law | Aquinas described four types of law: eternal law, divine law, natural law, and human law. He believed that natural law was given by God, and that it constitutes the principles of practical rationality, by which human action is judged as reasonable or unreasonable. |
| Aquinas' influence | Aquinas' ideas influenced European Enlightenment philosophers such as John Locke, as well as Americans such as Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King. |
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What You'll Learn
Thomas Aquinas's interpretation of Aristotle
Thomas Aquinas is regarded as the West's pre-eminent natural law theorist, inheriting the main traditions of natural law thinking in the ancient world, including Aristotelian traditions. Aquinas is considered one of the most important commentators on Aristotle, and his interpretation of Aristotle's philosophy was influenced by his context. Aquinas was a proponent of natural theology and attempted to synthesise Aristotelian philosophy with the principles of Christianity. He embraced several ideas put forward by Aristotle and is known for his commentaries on Aristotle's works, including On the Soul, On Interpretation, Posterior Analytics, Nicomachean Ethics, Physics, and Metaphysics.
Aquinas's interpretation of Aristotle's doctrine of the multivocity (or homonymy) of being is an example of how he built upon and reshaped Aristotle's philosophy. Aquinas argued that what it means for a substance to exist differs from what it means for an accidental aggregation of a substance with its accidents to exist. For instance, while creatures exist, God only exists in an analogous way. Aquinas's conception of prime matter as pure potentiality is also noteworthy, though it remains controversial.
In terms of the human soul, Aquinas follows Aristotle in teaching that through intellect, the human soul is potentially all things. The intellect, in conjunction with the will, expands the soul to become all that is by a cognitive and affective, but not physical, union. Aquinas and Aristotle agree that the highest object of this highest human power is the cognitive-affective union with God.
Aquinas's interpretation of Aristotle extends beyond philosophy to include science and theology. Aquinas's efforts at a systematic reworking of Aristotelianism reshaped Western philosophy and provoked numerous discussions among later medieval and modern philosophers. He is considered a foundational figure of modern thought and one of the most influential philosophers and theologians in the Western tradition.
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Aquinas's influence on early translations of Aristotle
Thomas Aquinas is regarded as the West's pre-eminent natural law theorist, inheriting the main traditions of natural law or quasi-natural law thinking in the ancient world, including Aristotelian traditions. Aquinas was influenced by Aristotle and built upon his ideas, especially in science, nature, and theology. Aquinas wrote several important commentaries on Aristotle's works, including On the Soul, On Interpretation, Posterior Analytics, Nicomachean Ethics, Physics, and Metaphysics.
Aquinas's work is associated with William of Moerbeke's translations of Aristotle from Greek into Latin. Aristotle's works on physics, metaphysics, and ethics became available in Latin in the 12th and 13th centuries, translated from Greek or Arabic sources. Aquinas was likely introduced to Aristotle's works through Peter of Ireland, who taught at the University of Paris. Aristotle's thought had a profound impact on medieval scholars, and Aquinas was no exception. Aquinas wanted to move away from Platonic thinking, which was dominant at the time, and introduce Aristotelian ideas to various fields.
Aquinas's doctrine of analogy, according to which statements about God are true analogically rather than univocally, was inspired by Aristotle. Aquinas also adopted Aristotle's distinctions between act and potency, essence and existence, substance and accidents, and the active and passive intellect. Aquinas's view of the soul as the "form" of the body was also influenced by Aristotle. Following Aristotle, Aquinas taught that through the intellect, the human soul can potentially understand the nature of all things and, by acts of understanding and inference, bring the universe into the soul.
Aquinas's system, however, was not a simple Christianization of Aristotle's philosophy. Aquinas took inspiration from antiquity, especially Aristotle, and created something new. Aquinas's philosophical thought has exerted enormous influence on subsequent Christian theology, especially Catholic theology, and Western philosophy in general. His ideas on claritas, for example, deeply influenced modernist writer James Joyce, who considered Aquinas second only to Aristotle among Western philosophers.
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Aquinas's view of the four kinds of law
Thomas Aquinas is regarded as the West's pre-eminent natural law theorist. He synthesised the main traditions of natural law or quasi-natural law thinking in the ancient world, including Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic traditions. Aquinas's views on the four kinds of law—eternal law, natural law, human law, and divine law—are outlined in his Treatise on Law, which is part of his masterwork, the Summa Theologiae.
Eternal law, or God's providence, is the belief that God's reason governs the entire community in the universe. Aquinas argues that rational creatures participate in the eternal law through natural law, which allows them to discern between good and evil. The first principle of natural law is, therefore, "good is to be done and pursued, and evil avoided".
Human law, according to Aquinas, is a result of reason and is particular to each community. He defines it as "a certain rule and measure of acts whereby man is induced to act or is restrained from acting". Human law is derived from natural law and is promulgated by those who have care for the community.
Divine law, or God's law, is the law given by God to humans through revelation. It is a set of rules and guidelines that humans should follow to live a moral and virtuous life. Aquinas believed that divine law was a reflection of God's nature and was essential for humans to achieve their ultimate purpose of union with God.
Aquinas's views on these four types of law have had a significant influence on subsequent natural law theorising and have shaped the development of Christian philosophy and theology. His ideas continue to be studied and debated by scholars today.
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The role of humans as recipients of natural law
Thomas Aquinas is widely regarded as the West's foremost theorist of natural law. In his writings, he synthesised and built upon the ideas of his predecessors, including Aristotle, to develop a comprehensive framework for natural law thinking. According to Aquinas, natural law is one aspect of divine providence, given by God to guide human behaviour.
As recipients of natural law, humans have a unique capacity for reason, which Aquinas believed was a spark of the divine. This capacity for reason distinguishes humans from other creatures and enables them to understand and follow the principles of natural law. Aquinas asserted that human laws must conform to the natural law, and any law that contradicts it is not a true law but a 'perversion of law'.
Aquinas' concept of natural law is closely tied to the idea of the ''common good'. He argued that humans are inherently social and political beings, and the role of a just ruler or government is to work for the common good of all. This idea influenced later Enlightenment philosophers such as John Locke, as well as figures such as Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King.
Aquinas' natural law theory also includes the notion of self-defence, which he discusses in the Summa Theologica. He differentiates between the external act, such as the taking of a life, and the internal act or motive, which can justify the action. For example, in the case of a son killing his father in self-defence, Aquinas would consider the internal motive and conclude that the killing is morally acceptable.
Aquinas' theory has been subject to various interpretations and debates, particularly regarding his reading of Aristotle. However, his work on natural law continues to be influential, and his ideas about the role of humans as recipients of natural law have had a significant impact on ethical and political thought.
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Aquinas's political ideas about natural law
Thomas Aquinas is regarded as the West's pre-eminent theorist of natural law. He is said to have inherited the main traditions of natural law thinking in the ancient world, including Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic traditions. Aquinas's central idea is that humans are created by God to reason, which is what distinguishes us from other creatures.
Aquinas's natural law theory is contained in his masterwork, the Summa Theologiae, specifically in the Treatise on Law, which comprises Questions 90 to 108 in the first part of the second part of the three-part Summa. Aquinas's theory sets the terms for subsequent natural law theorizing.
Aquinas's natural law theory revolves around the idea that good is to be done and evil avoided. This is a principle of intelligibility of action, where only actions conforming to this principle can be understood as intelligible. Aquinas believed that the natural law is observed when humans engage in correct practical reasoning about what is good and best for them in a given situation and when they act according to that rational determination.
Aquinas's view of natural law is not an external set of rules but rather general rules that any rational agent can recognize by virtue of being rational. For instance, pursuing good and avoiding evil is inherent in how humans think, and so it is not something that needs to be explicitly stated in a set of rules.
Aquinas's theory also includes the concept of the "law of nations" and "civil law." The "law of nations" refers to the former derivation of human laws from natural law, while "civil law" refers to the latter. Both forms of law are normative, comprising rational requirements for right human action, according to Aquinas's view.
Aquinas's natural law theory has been applied to concrete moral dilemmas, such as the preservation of life and self-defence. For example, in the Summa Theologica, Aquinas discusses the case of a son killing his father in self-defence, arguing that the internal motive is more important than the external act, and thus the killing is morally acceptable.
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Frequently asked questions
No, Thomas Aquinas did not create natural law. The concept of natural law was documented in ancient Greek philosophy by Aristotle and mentioned in ancient Roman philosophy by Cicero. However, Aquinas is regarded as the West's pre-eminent natural law theorist. He synthesised and condensed his predecessors' ideas into his Lex Naturalis (natural law).
Thomas Aquinas' most famous work is the Summa Theologica (Summa Theologiae), which runs to around 3,500 pages. The fundamentals of Aquinas' natural law doctrine are contained in the Treatise on Law, which comprises Questions 90 to 108 in the first part of the second part of the three-part Summa.
Aquinas described four kinds of law: eternal law, divine law, natural law, and human law. Natural law, according to Aquinas, constitutes the principles of practical rationality, by which human action is judged as reasonable or unreasonable. He wrote that "the light of reason is placed by nature [and thus by God] in every man to guide him in his acts".
Aquinas' writings on natural law became the basis for official Roman Catholic doctrine (known as "Thomism"). His political ideas regarding natural law, unjust rulers, and rebellion influenced European Enlightenment philosophers such as John Locke, as well as Americans such as Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King.
