Civil Rights Law: From Dream To Reality

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that outlawed discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex, and national origin. The Act was proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but it was opposed by a filibuster in the Senate. After Kennedy's assassination in November 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward and it was signed into law on July 2, 1964.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in public places, provided for the integration of schools and other public facilities, and made employment discrimination illegal. It was the most sweeping civil rights legislation since Reconstruction.

The Act was not without its challenges, however. In the House of Representatives, opposition bottled up the bill in the House Rules Committee. In the Senate, Southern Democratic opponents attempted to talk the bill to death in a 75-day filibuster—one of the longest in US history. The bill's supporters eventually obtained the two-thirds votes necessary to end debate and the bill passed with a vote of 73-27.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

The Act was proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but it was opposed by a filibuster in the Senate. After Kennedy's assassination in November 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward. The United States House of Representatives passed the bill on February 10, 1964, and after a 72-day filibuster, it passed the United States Senate on June 19, 1964.

The Act was not without its opponents. In the House of Representatives, opposition bottled up the bill in the House Rules Committee. In the Senate, Southern Democratic opponents attempted to talk the bill to death in a filibuster. However, House supporters overcame the Rules Committee obstacle by threatening to send the bill to the floor without committee approval. The Senate filibuster was overcome through the floor leadership of Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the considerable support of President Lyndon Johnson, and the efforts of Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen of Illinois, who convinced enough Republicans to support the bill over Democratic opposition.

The role of President John F. Kennedy

President John F. Kennedy played a significant role in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which was a landmark piece of legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex, and national origin.

Kennedy's role in the civil rights movement began before he was elected president in 1960. During the election campaign, Kennedy and his brother Robert intervened to secure Martin Luther King Jr.’s release from jail, where he had been sent for protesting segregation ordinances in Georgia. This intervention led to an endorsement from Martin Luther King Sr., which, combined with other campaign efforts, contributed to increased support among Black voters for Kennedy. Across the nation, almost 70% of African Americans voted for Kennedy, and these votes were instrumental in his victory.

During his first few days in office, Kennedy instructed his cabinet secretaries to increase the hiring of Black federal employees and requested an audit of diversity in federal employment and pay grades. He also called for initiatives to diversify the workforce, appointed unprecedented numbers of African Americans to high-level positions in his administration, and strengthened the Civil Rights Commission.

However, Kennedy was initially reluctant to propose major civil rights legislation during his first term, fearing he would lose the support of Southern Democrats who benefited from and supported segregation policies. Instead, he focused on enforcing existing laws and pushing for civil rights on multiple fronts. For example, he ordered his attorney general, Robert Kennedy, to submit friends-of-the-court briefs on behalf of civil rights litigants and to turn his attention to voting rights, initiating five times the number of suits brought during the previous administration.

In 1961, Kennedy sent federal marshals to protect Freedom Riders who were attacked while travelling by bus from Washington, D.C. to Birmingham, Alabama, to defy segregation in interstate transportation. In 1962, he brokered a deal with segregationist governor Ross Barnett to allow James Meredith, a Black man, to register at the segregated University of Mississippi. However, Kennedy's premature announcement of Meredith's successful registration on national television sparked riots by violent segregationists at the university, and federal marshals had to fight to control the situation.

In 1963, Kennedy's cautious approach to civil rights was challenged by the collapse of Martin Luther King Jr.'s campaign to desegregate Birmingham, Alabama, under a wave of officially sanctioned violence. The police attack on peaceful Black demonstrators proved that Kennedy's piecemeal approach had failed, and he was forced to take a firmer stand. On June 11, 1963, Kennedy delivered a televised address to the nation, announcing that he would send comprehensive civil rights legislation to Congress. The package would include provisions for access to public facilities, voting rights, and technical and monetary support for school desegregation.

Kennedy defined the civil rights crisis as moral, as well as constitutional and legal, and proposed what would become the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act would provide protection of every American's right to vote, end segregation in public facilities, and require public schools to be integrated. Kennedy worked to build bipartisan support for the bill and met with civil rights leaders, businessmen, and religious leaders to discuss the content of the bill.

However, Kennedy's assassination in November 1963 left the bill in the hands of his successor, Lyndon B. Johnson. Johnson used his legislative acumen and the outpouring of emotion after Kennedy's death to generate passage of the Civil Rights Act, which was signed into law on July 2, 1964.

The role of President Lyndon B. Johnson

President Lyndon B. Johnson played a crucial role in the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. After the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Johnson pushed hard for the bill's passage, securing it in 1964. The Act was a landmark in civil rights and labour law in the United States, prohibiting discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex, and national origin.

Johnson's role in the passing of the Act was significant. He used his experience in legislative politics and his position as President to support the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress, Johnson said:

> No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honour President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long.

Johnson's appeal to Congress was successful. The bill was passed by the House of Representatives on February 10, 1964, and by the Senate on June 19, 1964, after a 72-day filibuster. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act into law on July 2, 1964.

The Act was not without its critics, however. Johnson anticipated a backlash from Southern whites, saying to aide Bill Moyers:

> I think we may have lost the South for your lifetime – and mine.

Johnson was right. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 marked a turning point in the civil rights movement, and Johnson's domestic agenda meant that his presidency marked the peak of modern American liberalism in the 20th century.

The impact of the Civil Rights Act on public accommodations

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a landmark piece of legislation that had a significant impact on public accommodations in the United States. The Act's Title II specifically addressed public accommodations, prohibiting discrimination in places of public accommodation and defining them as:

> "any inn, hotel, motel, or other establishment which provides lodging to transient guests, any restaurant, cafeteria, lunchroom, lunch counter, soda fountain, any motion picture house, theater, concert hall, sports arena, stadium or other place of exhibition or entertainment."

The Act ensured that all persons were entitled to "the full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, and accommodations" of these places, without discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin. This marked a significant shift from the past, where people from minority groups were often excluded or segregated in restaurants, motels, theaters, and other public places.

The Civil Rights Act also empowered individuals to take legal action if they felt their rights had been violated. For example, if a person experienced discrimination in a place of public accommodation, they could file a complaint with the Civil Rights Division of the U.S. Department of Justice or their state attorney general's office. This aspect of the Act provided individuals with a sense of legal recourse and protection.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a pivotal moment in the history of civil rights in the United States, and its impact on public accommodations was significant. It ensured equal access to public facilities and services regardless of race, color, religion, or national origin, marking a step towards a more inclusive and just society.

The impact of the Civil Rights Act on employment

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States, prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. The Act had a significant impact on employment, making it illegal to discriminate in hiring, promoting, and firing based on these protected characteristics.

The Act's passage ended the application of "Jim Crow" laws, which had upheld racial segregation in the United States. It also strengthened the enforcement of voting rights and the desegregation of schools.

In addition to prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sex in employment decisions, the Act also included protections for pregnant women, making it illegal to discriminate against a woman because of pregnancy, childbirth, or a related medical condition.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 remains a benchmark civil rights legislation in the United States, with a wide-ranging impact on employment practices and opportunities.

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