Gavin Howe
Justinian and Theodora were influential figures in the Byzantine Empire, with Justinian serving as emperor and Theodora as empress. Justinian is known for his judicial reforms, including the codification and simplification of Roman law, which formed the basis of law in the Byzantine Empire. He was also a devout Christian and played a significant role in shaping church policy, defending Christian Orthodoxy, and constructing the Hagia Sophia, a centre of Christianity in Constantinople. Theodora, on the other hand, is remembered for her recognition of women's rights and her support for the Miaphysite/Monophysite Christian faction, which was at odds with Justinian's support for Chalcedonian Christianity. Their laws and policies had a significant impact on Christians within the empire, shaping religious practices and influencing the treatment of different Christian sects.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Theodora's involvement in Justinian's legal reforms | Theodora participated in Justinian's legal reforms, particularly those that increased the rights of women. |
| Theodora's influence on religious matters | Theodora was a Miaphysite/Monophysite and worked to protect and support Miaphysites/Monophysites, who were persecuted by Justinian and his Chalcedonian followers. She also supported various church-building projects. |
| Justinian's religious beliefs and policies | Justinian was an Orthodox Christian and included doctrines on the Holy Trinity and the Incarnation of Christ in his legal code. He fought against competing Christian sects and paganism, and persecuted Samaritans and Manicheans. |
| Justinian's construction projects | Justinian was responsible for the construction of the Hagia Sophia, the centre of Christianity in Constantinople. |
| Justinian's legal reforms | Justinian systematized and consolidated the Roman legal code, removing unnecessary laws and contradictions. |
| Justinian's territorial ambitions | Justinian sought to reconquer lands in the Western Roman Empire, including in Italy, North Africa, and Spain. |
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What You'll Learn
Theodora's influence on Justinian's religious policies
Theodora, the wife of Emperor Justinian I, was one of his chief political advisers and had a profound influence on his religious policies. She was a Miaphysite, a follower of a non-orthodox Christian doctrine that held that Christ was only divine and not human in nature. Despite her husband's support for Chalcedonian Christianity, Theodora worked to protect the Monophysites from persecution by the Chalcedonians. She founded a Miaphysite monastery in Sykae and provided shelter in the palace for Miaphysite leaders who faced opposition, such as Severus and Anthimus. Anthimus, appointed Patriarch of Constantinople under her influence, was hidden in Theodora's quarters for twelve years after he was excommunicated. She also enlisted the help of the Augustal Prefect and the Duke of Egypt to appoint a Miaphysite pope, Theodosius I of Alexandria, who was later exiled by Justinian.
Theodora's influence extended beyond the protection of the Miaphysites to shaping Justinian's religious policies. After her death, Justinian worked to bring harmony between the Miaphysites and the Chalcedonians, keeping his promise to protect her community of Miaphysite refugees in the Hormisdas Palace. John of Ephesus, a key Monophysite figure, wrote of Theodora's significant contributions to church-building projects and supporting the poor.
Theodora also participated in Justinian's legal and spiritual reforms, particularly in increasing the rights of women. She had laws passed that prohibited forced prostitution, closed brothels, and created a convent on the Asian side of the Dardanelles called the Metanoia (Repentance) for ex-prostitutes. Theodora expanded women's rights in divorce and property ownership, instituted the death penalty for rape, forbade the exposure of unwanted infants, and gave mothers some guardianship rights over their children.
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Justinian's Code and its impact on Christians
Justinian I's reign as Byzantine Emperor, from 527 to 565 CE, was marked by extensive territorial expansion, military success, and a new synthesis of Greco-Roman and Christian culture. Justinian's Code, also known as the Corpus Juris Civilis, was a significant aspect of his rule, involving the consolidation and simplification of the Byzantine Empire's legal code. It also created new importance for religious laws, particularly Christianity, which was vital to Justinian's reign.
Justinian's Code began in 529 CE, with Justinian and a team of legal experts and scribes collecting, clarifying, and simplifying the laws. It removed unnecessarily repetitive laws and misinterpretations from records, serving as a source for people to argue their cases and as a training tool for aspiring legal professionals.
Justinian was an adamant defender of Christian Orthodoxy and fought to extinguish the last vestiges of Greco-Roman paganism. He opposed competing Christian sects, including the Arians and the Monophysites, and persecuted the Manicheans and Samaritans. He banned the Samaritans from having wills, an intentional act of humiliation. Justinian also came into conflict with the papacy in 543 CE, straining relations between the western and eastern territories of his empire.
Justinian's wife, Theodora, was a proponent of Miaphysitism, a non-orthodox doctrine holding that Jesus Christ was only divine and not human in nature. She used her power and influence to promote religious and social policies that were important to her, including the protection of Miaphysites from persecution. Theodora also expanded the rights of women in divorce and property ownership, instituted the death penalty for rape, and forbade the exposure of unwanted infants. She was one of the first rulers to recognise women's rights and is remembered for being one of the most powerful women in Byzantine history.
In conclusion, Justinian's Code had a significant impact on Christians within the Byzantine Empire, with Justinian's religious beliefs influencing the legal code. While Theodora held differing religious views, she also contributed to the protection of Miaphysites and the expansion of women's rights.
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Theodora's protection of Miaphysites
Theodora, the wife of Justinian I, is known for her protection of the Miaphysites, a Christian sect that believes in the single nature of Christ, which is both divine and human. The Miaphysites were opposed by the majority Chalcedonian Christians, and Theodora, herself allegedly a Monophysite, worked to protect them from persecution.
Theodora founded a Miaphysite monastery in Sykae and offered shelter to Miaphysite leaders within her palace, including Severus and Anthimus, the latter of whom was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople under her influence. When Anthimus was excommunicated, Theodora hid him in her quarters until her death 12 years later. She also welcomed eight Miaphysite bishops to Constantinople and housed them in the Hormisdas Palace, which later became known as the dwelling of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora. On one occasion, she accommodated so many monks that the floor of a grand chamber collapsed under their weight.
Theodora also provided political support for the ministry of Jacob Baradaeus. Additionally, she is believed to have converted the inhabitants of Nobatae, south of Egypt, to Miaphysite Christianity around 540. When Justinian attempted to convert them to Chalcedonian Christianity, Theodora insisted on Miaphysitism, even going so far as to instruct the Duke of Thebaid to delay her husband's embassy so that Miaphysite missionaries would arrive first.
Theodora's influence on Justinian is said to have been significant. After her death, Justinian worked to bring harmony between the Miaphysites and the Chalcedonian Christians and kept his promise to protect the Miaphysite community in the Hormisdas Palace.
Theodora's protection of the Miaphysites was not without controversy. She was accused by pro-Chalcedonians of fostering heresy and undermining the unity of Christendom. However, some historians suggest that Theodora and Justinian may have been pretending to oppose each other, a tactic to appease both factions.
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Justinian's persecution of Samaritans
Justinian I, who ruled the Byzantine Empire from 527 CE to 565 CE, was responsible for the construction of the Hagia Sophia, the centre of Christianity in Constantinople. He also unified the Roman legal code, which served as the basis for law in the Byzantine Empire.
Justinian's Code put many religious laws at the forefront, and he included doctrines on the belief in the Holy Trinity and the Incarnation of Christ. His wife, Theodora, was a Monophysite, and she worked to protect her community and provide sanctuary for persecuted Miaphysites within the palace.
Now, onto Justinian's persecution of Samaritans. According to sources, Emperor Justinian I faced a major revolt in 556 CE, which was possibly a consequence of the persecution of Samaritans by the ruling emperor. The violence erupted due to restrictions imposed on Samaritans by the Byzantine authorities via Justinian's edicts. Following massive riots, the rebels quickly conquered Neapolis, and ben Sabar emerged as their king. Ben Sabar followed a strict anti-Christian policy: he persecuted Christians, destroyed churches, and organised guerrilla warfare in the countryside, driving Christians away. The forces of Emperor Justinian I quelled the revolt with the help of the Ghassanid Arabs; tens of thousands of Samaritans died or were enslaved, and their faith was virtually outlawed by the Byzantine Empire.
Emperor Justin II, who ruled from 565 to 578 CE, complained about "outrages committed by... Samaritans at the foot of Mount Carmel upon the Christian churches and the holy images". In response to this, Justin II issued an order in May 572 rescinding the restoration of rights granted by Justinian.
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Theodora's role in increasing women's rights
Theodora played a significant role in increasing women's rights during her reign as Empress. She brought about sweeping legal reforms, known as the Corpus Juris Civilis, which included a wave of specific rights for women. This body of law is recognised as a central source material for the legal traditions of Western civilisation.
Theodora's influence on the laws that pertained to women is undeniable. She advocated for equal rights for women and brought about substantial changes. One of the most notable reforms was making rape punishable by death and transferring the rapist's property to the rape victim. This law applied to all women, regardless of social status, and extended to anyone present during the assault.
Theodora also expanded women's rights in divorce and property ownership. She ensured that women could own and inherit property, giving them a level of social power and financial independence previously unseen. With these new laws, a family's wealth could be passed down through a daughter, and a wife could claim her husband's property and fortune upon his death.
In addition to these landmark reforms, Theodora worked to protect women from sexual exploitation and abuse. She passed laws prohibiting forced prostitution and closed brothels. She also established a convent, the Metanoia, on the Asian side of the Dardanelles, where former prostitutes could find refuge and support themselves.
Theodora's efforts to increase women's rights were influenced by her own experiences as a young woman. She is said to have worked as an actress, prostitute, and stripper before becoming Empress. Her past was often scandalised and marginalised by historians, but it provided her with firsthand knowledge of the issues women faced. Despite facing prejudices due to her background, Theodora dared to address the specific problems of women in a male-dominated society.
Theodora's contributions to women's rights were groundbreaking for her time, and her legacy continues to be influential today. She set a precedent for equal rights and empowered women through legal reforms that granted them social, economic, and legal power.
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