Locke's Pleasure Law: Are There Exceptions?

John Locke's (1632-1704) philosophy is among the most important texts for understanding several central currents in Western Europe's epistemology, metaphysics, politics, religion, and pedagogy in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. His work An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is the undeniable starting point for the study of empiricism in the early modern period. Locke's philosophy centres around the idea that pleasure and pain are the sole motives for human action. This means that the moral theory that is most directly endorsed in the Essay is hedonism.

Locke notes that pleasure and pain are joined to almost all our ideas of sensation and reflection. This means that our mental content is organised by ideas associated with pleasure and pain. That our ideas are associated with pains and pleasures is compatible with our phenomenal experience: the contact of a hot stove will result in an idea of pain. Locke adds that it makes sense to join our ideas to the ideas of pleasure and pain because if our ideas were not joined with either pleasure or pain, we would have no reason to prefer one action over another.

Locke's philosophy has been interpreted as endorsing hedonism and natural law, which some see as contradictory. However, others argue that Locke's hedonism and natural law theory represent a coherent whole. According to Locke, God's arrangement of pleasure and pain gives us insight into the ends that God has set for us, which ultimately gives us insight into the content of the natural law.

The relationship between Locke's pleasure law and natural law

John Locke's moral philosophy is a complex and multifaceted system that integrates hedonism with a natural law view of ethics. Locke's adoption of hedonism, or the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain as the sole motives for human action, may seem inconsistent with his commitment to natural law. However, scholars have argued that these two aspects of his philosophy can be harmonized.

Locke's concept of "convenientia" plays a crucial role in understanding this synthesis. According to Locke, God harmonizes natural law with human nature through the arrangement of pleasure and pain. This providential arrangement provides insight into the ends God has set for humanity and, consequently, the content of natural law. Thus, Locke's hedonism and natural law theory are not contradictory but complementary.

Locke's natural law theory is grounded in his belief in God's existence and God's role as the lawmaker. He argues that the organized way in which animal and vegetable bodies propagate indicates the presence of a governing principle, which he identifies as God. This God-given natural law is discoverable by humans through the combined work of reason and sense experience.

Locke's hedonism, on the other hand, is based on his empiricist theory of ideas. He asserts that ideas come from sensation and reflection, with pleasure and pain annexed to almost all our ideas. This association of ideas with pleasure and pain motivates human action and forms the basis of Locke's hedonism.

While Locke's natural law theory emphasizes the importance of discovering and following the law decreed by God, his hedonism acknowledges the role of pleasure and pain in guiding human behavior. These two aspects of his philosophy are interconnected, as Locke suggests that God's arrangement of pleasure and pain is meant to lead humans toward their true happiness, which is aligned with the fulfillment of the natural law.

Locke's distinction between "happiness" and "true happiness" is crucial in reconciling these two aspects. While all things that bring pleasure are linked to happiness, there is a special category of pleasure-bringing things that lead to true happiness. The pursuit of this true happiness, or the "highest perfection of intellectual nature," involves seeking out the "true intrinsic good" within things.

In conclusion, Locke's pleasure law and natural law are intimately connected. The natural law, as decreed by God, provides the objective moral framework, while the pleasure law guides human action toward the discovery and fulfillment of that law. By recognizing the role of pleasure and pain in human motivation, Locke integrates hedonism into his natural law theory, creating a coherent and comprehensive moral philosophy.

The role of pleasure and pain in Locke's moral theory

John Locke's moral philosophy is scattered across his various works, including his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Two Treatises of Government, and Some Thoughts Concerning Education. Locke's moral theory is hedonistic, with pleasure and pain playing a central role in motivating human action. He argues that pleasure and pain are the sole motives for human action, and that true happiness is associated with the good, which is in turn associated with pleasure. This theory, however, faces certain challenges and requires further elaboration.

Locke's hedonistic theory of motivation holds that pleasure and pain are the sole motivators of human action. He defines pleasure as "that pleasure in the mind, which every one finds in himself, upon the thought of a probable future enjoyment of a thing, which is apt to delight him," while pain is described as "an uneasiness of the mind, upon the thought of a future evil likely to befall us." Desire, according to Locke, arises from the absence of something that would bring pleasure if attained. This theory suggests that our actions are driven by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.

Locke further elaborates on the relationship between pleasure, pain, and our concepts of good and evil. He asserts that "we call good which is apt to cause or increase pleasure, or diminish pain in us; or else to procure, or preserve us the possession of any other good, or absence of any evil." In other words, what we consider good is determined by its ability to bring us pleasure or reduce our pain. Conversely, evil is associated with things that cause pain or diminish pleasure. This understanding of good and evil based on pleasure and pain raises questions about moral relativism, as different individuals may find pleasure in different actions.

To address this challenge, Locke introduces a distinction between "happiness" and "true happiness." While all things that bring us pleasure are linked to happiness, there is a special category of pleasure-bringing things that are linked to true happiness. The pursuit of this category of pleasures is emblematic of the correct use of our intellectual powers and is aligned with "the highest perfection of intellectual nature." This distinction allows Locke to argue that the pursuit of certain sets of pleasures or goods is more worthy than others.

Locke also acknowledges the role of reflection and reason in our moral decision-making. He suggests that we can use our intellectual faculties to contemplate and judge the true value of things, beyond our immediate reactions to them. This ability to reflect and judge allows us to recognize the "true, intrinsic good" in things and adjust our desires and uneasiness accordingly. This recognition of intrinsic good is crucial for distinguishing between the "good," understood as objects connected to pleasure, and the "moral good," understood as objects connected to pleasure and conforming to a law.

Locke's concept of natural law further complicates his moral theory. He argues that there is a moral law discoverable by combining reason and sense experience, which is binding on human beings due to its decree by God. This natural law is grounded in God's wisdom and benevolence and is concerned with the good of human beings and their self-preservation. The natural law includes divine law, civil law, and the law of reputation or philosophical law, each serving different purposes in Locke's ethical system.

In conclusion, Locke's moral theory assigns a central role to pleasure and pain in motivating human action and shaping our concepts of good and evil. His hedonistic theory, however, faces challenges related to moral relativism, which he addresses by introducing the concept of "true happiness." Additionally, Locke's moral philosophy incorporates the role of reflection, reason, and natural law, adding complexity to his understanding of human motivation and moral obligation.

The role of God in Locke's moral theory

John Locke's moral philosophy is rarely taken up for critical analysis, and is often considered obscure and confusing. However, morality was a driving concern of his greatest philosophical work, 'An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'. Locke's discussion of morality in the Essay is not as well-developed as many of his other views, but it is thought that morality was the inspiration for the Essay itself.

Locke's philosophy is generally seen as a defining work of 17th-century empiricist epistemology and metaphysics. However, his moral philosophy carries a degree of rationalism that is hard to reconcile with his image as the arch-empiricist of his period. Locke's discussion of morality in the Essay seems underdeveloped, but there is reason to think that morality was the driving concern of this great work.

Locke's philosophy identifies morality as a central feature of human intellectual and practical life. He writes that "Morality is the proper Science, and Business of Mankind in general". For a book aiming to set out the limits and extent of human knowledge, this is no small claim.

Locke's natural law theory is the basis of his moral obligation. He believed that morality is natural law, and that moral rules are founded on divine, universal, and absolute laws. These divine moral laws are discernible by human reason, and by dint of their divine authorship, these rules are obligatory and rationally discernible as such.

Locke also espouses a hedonistic moral theory, which holds that all goods and evils reduce to specific kinds of pleasures and pains. The emphasis here is on sanctions, and how rewards and punishments serve to provide morality with its normative force.

Locke's natural law theory and hedonistic moral theory seem to be incommensurable views, and the challenge for Locke scholars has been to figure out how, or even if, they can be made to cohere. Locke himself never claimed to find these strands incompatible, nor ever abandoned his rationalistic natural law view.

Locke's natural law theory is useful for understanding the role of God in his moral theory. Locke's natural law theory is that moral rules are founded on the will of a superior, i.e. God. Locke writes that "the idea of Authority, and obligation, is that of power and right, having force enough to compel obedience".

Locke's natural law theory is that moral rules are obligatory because of the authority structure out of which they arise. Locke states that "the set of moral rules that reason deduces are taken by me to be reflective of human nature. The rules that govern human conduct are specifically tailored to human nature, and our duty to God involves realising our natures to the fullest degree".

Locke's natural law theory also has a teleological element. He writes that "there is a noticeable degree of teleology in my theory. I consider moral duty to be tailored to human nature, a set of laws specific to humanity and governing our actions according to God's will".

Locke's natural law theory is also deductive. He writes that "there are two baseline assumptions of my moral thinking: morality is universal, and it is something that can be understood clearly and unequivocally by human reason".

Locke's natural law theory is also legalistic. He writes that "the very notion of law presupposes an authority structure as the basis for its institution and its enforcement. The law carries obligatory weight by virtue of its reflecting the will of a rightful superior".

Locke's natural law theory also has a hedonistic element. He writes that "feelings of pleasure and pain accompany all our ideas, prompting us to act in response to our perceptual experiences, and to move, in thought, from one idea to another".

Locke's natural law theory also has an element of reward and punishment. He writes that the very idea that one being has rightful legislative power over another is predicated on the degree to which the former being can effectively impose sanctions on the latter.

Locke's natural law theory is also anthropocentric. He writes that "moral rules are, above all, an expression of God's will. It is this latter aspect of morality that binds us to abide by the dictates of morality".

Locke's natural law theory is also theistic. He writes that "God has attached feelings of pleasure and pain to our ideas, so the natural faculties with which humans are endowed might not remain wholly idle, and unemploy'd by us".

Locke's natural law theory is also eschatological. He writes that "the greater effort we each make in refining our rational faculty, the more clearly each of us will discern the proper path to eternal salvation".

In conclusion, the role of God in Locke's moral theory is that of lawmaker and enforcer. God's will is the formal cause of law, and human nature is the material cause. God's will transforms a natural good into a moral good, and it is God's will that obliges humans to act.

The role of law in Locke's moral theory

John Locke's moral philosophy is largely based on his interpretation of the natural law, which he believed was discernible by reason and applicable to all people. According to Locke, the natural law is a moral law that is discoverable by the combined work of reason and sense experience, and binding on human beings in virtue of being decreed by God. Locke's natural law theory is closely tied to his concept of the state of nature, which he defines as a state where people live according to the law of reason without a common legitimate authority.

Locke's natural law theory is based on the idea that God has decreed laws that are discernible by reason and applicable to all people. He argues that God's existence can be proven through reason and observation of the natural world, and that God has created humans with the capacity to discover and follow these laws. Locke suggests that the natural law is discoverable by two means: the light of nature and sense experience. The light of nature refers to the use of reason and intellectual faculties to discern moral truths, while sense experience involves observing the external world and its regularities to understand God's decrees.

Locke's natural law theory is closely tied to his concept of the state of nature. He defines the state of nature as a state where people live according to the law of reason without a common legitimate authority to judge disputes. In the state of nature, Locke argues that individuals have the liberty to engage in "innocent delights" and seek their own preservation within the limits of natural law. However, he acknowledges that the state of nature is imperfect due to the absence of a common judge, which can lead to conflicts and instability.

Locke's moral philosophy also includes a discussion of happiness and pleasure. He associates true happiness with the good, which is further associated with pleasure. Locke suggests that pleasure is the sole motive for human action and that the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain are the fundamental drivers of human behaviour. However, he distinguishes between "happiness" and "true happiness", arguing that while all things that bring pleasure are linked to happiness, there is a category of pleasure-bringing things that are linked to true happiness.

Locke's moral philosophy has been the subject of much interpretation and debate, with scholars disagreeing on the primacy of natural law or natural rights in his theory. Some scholars, such as Leo Strauss, emphasise the rights-based aspect of Locke's theory, while others, like Dunn, Tully, and Ashcraft, argue that natural law is primary. Despite these differing interpretations, Locke's moral philosophy remains a significant contribution to the field, offering insights into the relationship between law, morality, and human nature.

The relationship between Locke's pleasure law and his theory of free will

John Locke's ethical theory is closely tied to his views on human nature, empiricism, and his conception of free will. Locke's ethical theory, or "hedonism", is based on the idea that pleasure and pain are the sole motives for human action. This means that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the primary drivers of human behaviour. In his work, "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding", Locke argues that ideas of good and evil are derived from our experiences of pleasure and pain.

Locke's theory of free will is also central to his ethical framework. He defines free will as the "power in any agent to do or forbear any particular action, according to the determination or thought of the mind". In other words, free will is the ability to act or refrain from acting based on one's own desires and judgments. This conception of free will is closely linked to Locke's idea of the "law of nature", which he sees as a moral law decreed by God and discoverable through reason and sense experience. According to Locke, this law of nature is binding on all human beings and serves as the basis for moral obligation.

Locke's ethical theory and his theory of free will are interconnected. On the one hand, Locke's hedonism suggests that our actions are driven by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. On the other hand, his theory of free will emphasizes the role of reason and judgment in making choices. These two aspects of Locke's thought come together in his notion of "true happiness". Locke suggests that while we may be naturally oriented towards pursuing immediate pleasures, true happiness lies in the pursuit of "true intrinsic goods" that lead to long-lasting happiness. This requires the ability to suspend our desires and make rational judgments about what will truly bring us happiness in the long run.

Locke's ethical theory and his theory of free will are thus closely intertwined. His hedonism provides the motivational basis for human action, while his conception of free will highlights the role of reason and judgment in making choices that align with our understanding of the "law of nature" and lead to true happiness.

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