Anaya Nolan
The sources of moral law or truth are numerous and varied, and they are often interrelated. For example, in the Catholic Church, the moral law is seen as having four sources: eternal law, natural law, revealed law, and human law. The eternal law is the source of all law in God, while natural law is a set of moral truths that humans can discern without the explicit aid of Biblical revelation. Revealed law comprises the Old Law and the New Law or the Law of the Gospel, and human law is the rule of conduct enacted by competent authority for the common good. In addition to these four sources, there are other perspectives on the sources of moral law or truth. For instance, different religious traditions, such as Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism, have their own sacred texts, traditions, and interpretations that guide moral behaviour. Furthermore, philosophical traditions, such as Kant's moral philosophy, provide additional insights into the nature of moral law and the role of duty, respect, and reason in our moral decision-making.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Sources of morality | The Bible, the Torah, the Quran, the Vedas, the Four Noble Truths, and the teachings of the Buddha |
| Human reason | |
| Religious experience | |
| Natural law | |
| Social contract | |
| Evolution | |
| Social construct | |
| Science | |
| God |
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What You'll Learn
Religious texts
Christianity
The Bible, comprising the Old Testament and the New Testament, is the primary source of moral authority for Christians. They believe that it is the Word of God and provides instruction on how to live a righteous life. The Old Testament, or the Law of Moses, contains religious laws and ethics, while the New Testament includes the teachings of Jesus Christ, who Christians believe embodies the ultimate truth. Christian canon law, applicable within the theological framework of the church, draws from these texts.
Islam
The Quran, believed to be the verbatim word of God, is the foundational text of Islam and the primary source of Sharia, or Islamic law. Sharia is a moral code that governs the lives of Muslims. In addition to the Quran, the Sunnah, which records the traditions and practices of the Prophet Muhammad, is also a crucial source of moral guidance. Islamic jurisprudence interprets and extends Sharia to address contemporary issues not directly covered in the primary sources.
Judaism
The Torah, which includes the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, is central to Judaism. It is considered a revelation of natural law and a blueprint for the order of creation. While interpretations vary, the Torah serves as a foundation for Jewish law and ethics. Additionally, Jews acknowledge the authority of the Talmud, a collection of commentaries on the Torah, and the Mishnah, which contains developed traditions. These texts provide a framework for moral conduct and religious practice.
Hinduism
Hindu law is derived from various scriptures, including the Vedas, Upanishads, Dharmashastras, and Puranas. The notion of dharma, or right action, is a fundamental concept in Hinduism, representing the eternal law of the universe. Hindu texts provide guidelines for moral behaviour and the ordering of human society. The Laws of Manu, for example, offer specific guidance on societal structure and conduct. Hindu scriptures are considered eternal and authoritative sources of moral truth.
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Human reason
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) also viewed human reason as the source of morality. He formulated a deontological theory, which states that the ethical value of actions depends on their conformity with moral laws, independent of their outcomes. These laws are known as categorical imperatives, which are universal requirements that apply to every situation. For instance, lying is always wrong, regardless of the context. According to Kant, a person has a good will if they respect the moral law and form their intentions and motives in agreement with it. Actions motivated by a good will are considered unconditionally good, even if they result in undesirable consequences.
In contrast, David Hume (1711–1776) did not view reason as a motivating factor for ethical actions. Instead, he believed that moral sentiments, such as empathy, were the driving force behind ethical behaviour, while reason merely anticipated the consequences of those actions.
The concept of human reason as a source of moral law or truth is also present in other religions. In Islam, for example, the hadith (traditions and stories about the Prophet and his followers) plays a crucial role in forming Islamic law. Similarly, in Hinduism, the notion of dharma (right action) is grounded in the eternal law of the universe. This suggests that Hindus may use their reason to understand and interpret the eternal law, guiding their actions and behaviour.
While human reason is a significant source of moral law or truth, it is not the only factor influencing moral behaviour. Other sources, such as religious texts, divine command theory, and social constructs also play a role in shaping an individual's moral compass.
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Natural law
The theory of natural law suggests that our civil laws should be based on morality, ethics, and what is inherently correct. This is in contrast to positive law, which is created by human authorities and may or may not reflect natural law. Positive law refers to laws that are defined by statute and common law, such as speed limits, the age of majority, and zoning ordinances. While positive law is created and enforced by human institutions like governments and police forces, natural law is thought to be governed by a higher power and is therefore beyond human control.
The concept of natural law has been explored by many philosophers and theologians throughout history, including St. Thomas Aquinas, who identified the rational nature of human beings as the defining factor of moral law. Aquinas summarised the medieval understanding of natural law by quoting Cicero's statement that "nature" and "custom" were the sources of a society's laws. Other notable figures who have been influenced by the concept of natural law include Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.
In Catholicism, natural law is described as "the original moral sense which enables man to discern by reason the good and the evil, the truth and the lie". This interpretation holds that natural law is written and engraved in the soul of each person, and that it is human reason that ordains us to do good and avoid sin. Actions in natural law are judged by three things: the person's intent, the circumstances of the act, and the nature of the act.
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Social constructs
However, others argue that moral law is not merely a social construct but rather a universal truth, akin to the laws of physics. While people may need guidance to fully understand and apply these laws, they are not created by society. This view suggests that moral law transcends cultural and historical boundaries and that there are fundamental moral truths that exist independently of human society.
The idea of moral law as a social construct is closely tied to the concept of moral relativism, which posits that moral truths are relative to the norms and values of a particular society or culture. In this view, what is considered morally right or wrong is not absolute but depends on the specific context and beliefs of a given group. This perspective allows for a diversity of moral codes and acknowledges that different societies may have differing moral standards.
However, the notion of moral relativism has been criticised for potentially justifying immoral acts. If moral truth is relative, it could be used to excuse actions that are widely considered unethical, such as slavery or oppression. This perspective assumes that societies are static and ignores the potential for individuals to transcend societal norms, as seen in the case of the Grimké sisters.
Furthermore, the idea of moral law as a social construct raises questions about the role of social institutions and power structures in shaping moral norms. Social institutions, such as religion, education, and the media, play a significant role in transmitting and enforcing societal values. These institutions can influence what is considered morally acceptable within a particular society, and they may not always align with universal moral truths or the interests of all individuals.
Ultimately, the debate around social constructs and moral law centres on the question of whether moral truths are absolute and universal or relative and context-dependent. While some argue that moral law is a social construct shaped by societal beliefs and institutions, others maintain that it is a universal truth that exists independently of human society.
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Evolution
Charles Darwin's "The Descent of Man" applied evolutionary theories to human beings, marking the beginning of the biologization of ethics. Darwin devoted a large chapter to evolutionary explanations of the moral sense, arguing that it evolved in two main steps, with the root of human morality lying in social instincts.
Darwin accepted the greatest-happiness principle as a standard of right and wrong, suggesting that an action is good if it improves happiness for the greatest number. He believed that humans are biologically inclined towards sympathy, altruism, and morality as these traits provided an advantage in the struggle for existence.
However, critics question if biologically useful altruism can explain universal moral principles. For instance, while altruism may favour family or a group, moral principles like "do not kill" apply universally, beyond one's own family or group.
Recent research in evolutionary theory has identified several moral instincts that develop in humans across cultures and historical time. This provides a scientifically plausible explanation for the moral intuitions at the heart of natural law theory, accounting for the emergence and persistence of the belief in a natural law.
While evolution may provide insights into the development of moral instincts, it is important to note that the existence of moral truths and their objectivity remains a subject of debate in philosophy and metaethics.
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