Keith Mack
The Code of Ur-Nammu, written c. 2100-2050 BCE, is the oldest known surviving law code. It was written in Sumerian, on clay tablets, and standardised the law across the region of Sumer. The code is arranged in a casuistic form of 'IF (crime) THEN (punishment)', a pattern followed in nearly all later codes. The Code of Hammurabi, inscribed c. 1792-1750 BCE, is another well-preserved set of laws from ancient Mesopotamia. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian and is considered one of the most complete records of ancient law.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Name | Code of Ur-Nammu |
| Date | c. 2100-2050 BCE |
| Origin | Mesopotamia, Sumer |
| Language | Sumerian |
| Number of laws | 57 |
| Format | Clay tablets |
| Contents | Homicide, sexual offences, assault, false accusations, marriage, property, fines of monetary compensation for bodily damage |
| Other | Oldest surviving law code, discovered in Iraq in 1948, translated in 1952 |
| Name | Code of Hammurabi |
| Date | c. 1792-1750 BCE |
| Origin | Mesopotamia, Babylon |
| Language | Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian |
| Number of laws | 282 |
| Format | Carved into a black stone stele |
| Contents | Family law, criminal law, civil law, administrative law, commercial interactions, fines and punishments |
| Other | Rediscovered in 1901 in present-day Iran, considered one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes |
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What You'll Learn
- The Code of Ur-Nammu, c. 2100-2050 BCE, is the oldest known surviving law code
- The Code of Hammurabi, c. 1792-1750 BCE, is one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes
- The Code of Lipit-Ishtar, which predates Hammurabi's code, was created to deal with disputes arising from estate problems, inheritance, and debt enslavement
- The Laws of Eshnunna pre-dated Hammurabi's laws by around 200 years
- The Code of Urukagina, c. 24th century BCE, is the earliest law code from Mesopotamia
The Code of Ur-Nammu, c. 2100-2050 BCE, is the oldest known surviving law code
The Code of Ur-Nammu, dating to c. 2100-2050 BCE, is the oldest known surviving law code. It is from ancient Mesopotamia, written in Sumerian on clay tablets in cuneiform script. The code is named after Ur-Nammu, king of Ur, Sumer, and Akkad, and it is believed to have been written during his reign or by his son, Shulgi, after his death. The code was discovered in Iraq in 1948 and first translated by Samuel Noah Kramer in 1952.
The Code of Ur-Nammu is arranged in a casuistic form, with a stated crime followed by its punishment. This pattern was followed in many subsequent codes. The punishments in the code are primarily fines, except for capital offenses such as murder, robbery, adultery, and rape. The code provides a glimpse into the societal structure of Ur's Third Dynasty, with the king at the top, followed by two basic strata: the 'lu', or free people, and slaves.
The prologue of the code invokes the deities Nanna and Utu for Ur-Nammu's kingship and decrees "equity in the land". Ur-Nammu is described as a mighty warrior who banished malediction, violence, and strife. He also standardized weights and measures and set monthly temple expenses. The code includes laws regarding divorce, sorcery, adultery, and bridal presents.
The Code of Ur-Nammu is three centuries older than the well-known Code of Hammurabi, which was inscribed on a massive black stone stele and established standards for commercial interactions and fines. The Code of Hammurabi is considered one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes, but it was not the first, as several earlier collections, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, have been discovered. These earlier collections provide insights into the legal systems and societal structures of ancient Mesopotamia.
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The Code of Hammurabi, c. 1792-1750 BCE, is one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes
The Code of Hammurabi, developed during the reign of Hammurabi (c. 1792–1750 BCE), is one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes. It is a collection of 282 rules that established standards for commercial interactions and set fines and punishments to meet the requirements of justice. The code is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian, and it is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East.
The Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a massive, finger-shaped black stone stele (pillar) that was looted by invaders and finally rediscovered in 1901 in the ruins of the Elamite city of Susa in present-day Iran. The text was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium. The stele now resides in the Louvre Museum, Paris, France. The top of the stele features a two-and-a-half-foot relief carving of Hammurabi receiving the law—symbolized by a measuring rod and tape—from the seated Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: one-fifth contains a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, while the remaining four-fifths contain the laws.
The Code of Hammurabi is less a proclamation of principles than a collection of legal precedents, set between prose celebrating Hammurabi’s just and pious rule. The laws are casuistic, expressed as "if...then" conditional sentences. They cover a broad range of topics, including criminal law, family law, property law, and commercial law. The penalties varied according to the status of the offenders and the circumstances of the offenses. The code includes many harsh punishments, sometimes demanding the removal of the guilty party's tongue, hands, breasts, eye, or ear. However, it is also one of the earliest examples of an accused person being considered innocent until proven guilty.
The Code of Hammurabi is not the oldest written legal code. Several earlier collections survive, including the Sumerian "Lipit-Ishtar" and "Ur-Nammu," which predate Hammurabi's code by hundreds of years. The Code of Ur-Nammu, dating from c. 2100-2050 BCE, is the oldest known surviving law code. It is from Mesopotamia and is written on tablets in the Sumerian language.
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The Code of Lipit-Ishtar, which predates Hammurabi's code, was created to deal with disputes arising from estate problems, inheritance, and debt enslavement
The Code of Lipit-Ishtar was promulgated by Lipit-Ishtar, the fifth king of the Dynasty of Isin, who ruled Lower Mesopotamia from 1934 to 1924 BCE. It is the second-oldest known extant legal code after the Code of Ur-Nammu, and it paved the way for the famous Code of Hammurabi. Lipit-Ishtar is credited with restoring peace and establishing a functioning legal system in his lands.
The Code of Lipit-Ishtar is a collection of laws written in cuneiform script in the Sumerian language. It is similar in structure to the Code of Ur-Nammu, with a prologue, a main body, and an epilogue. The prologue invokes the gods An and Enlil and explains that they have invested Lipit-Ishtar as "the country's prince" to "establish justice in the land, eradicate the cry for justice, and forcefully restrain crime and violence." The main body of the code consists of almost fifty legal provisions, introduced by the Sumerian word "tukun-be," meaning "if." These provisions cover a range of topics, including boats, agriculture, fugitive slaves, false testimony, foster care, apprenticeship, marriage, sexual relationships, and rented oxen. Notably, the code does not include any crimes punishable by death.
One of the primary purposes of the Code of Lipit-Ishtar was to address disputes arising from estate problems, inheritance, and debt enslavement. Debt enslavement had become a widespread practice, with people selling themselves or family members into slavery. The code also included provisions for community service for public works, fair tax rates, and estate laws. While the upper class may have strictly adhered to these laws, villages, towns, and cities often regarded them as guidelines rather than binding laws.
The Code of Lipit-Ishtar is an important precursor to the Code of Hammurabi, which is often regarded as one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes. The Code of Hammurabi, compiled by the Babylonian king Hammurabi during his reign from 1792 to 1750 BCE, is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian and is inscribed on a basalt stele, which was rediscovered in 1901 in present-day Iran. The Code of Hammurabi includes 282 rules that established standards for commercial interactions, set fines, and outlined punishments. It is known for its harsh punishments, such as the removal of body parts, and its doctrine of "lex talionis," or "an eye for an eye."
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The Laws of Eshnunna pre-dated Hammurabi's laws by around 200 years
The Code of Hammurabi, compiled at the end of Hammurabi's reign, is often regarded as the first written legal code. However, this assumption is incorrect, as several earlier collections were discovered after the Code of Hammurabi, including the Laws of Eshnunna, which predate Hammurabi's laws by around 200 years.
The Laws of Eshnunna, dating back to the 18th century BCE, offer a glimpse into the evolution of law and society in ancient Mesopotamia. They comprise 60 articles that outline a structured society with distinct classes, including free citizens, slaves, and other groups, each with their own rights and responsibilities. The influence of Babylonian and Sumerian cultures is evident, showcasing the cultural diversity of ancient Mesopotamia.
The exact date of promulgation of the Laws of Eshnunna is uncertain, but it is widely agreed upon that they precede the Code of Hammurabi by at least a century. Hammurabi, the sixth king of the Amorite First Dynasty of Babylon, ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC. His code of laws, consisting of 282 rules, established standards for interactions and set fines and punishments.
The Laws of Eshnunna differ significantly from the Code of Hammurabi. They demonstrate a more lenient approach to crimes like homicide and bodily injury, favouring monetary fines over harsh punishments. Additionally, they provide a more flexible system for resolving property damage disputes, allowing for negotiation and arbitration. Notably, the Laws of Eshnunna also grant rights and protections to slaves, marking a more humane approach compared to the punitive severity of subsequent legal codes.
The discovery of the Laws of Eshnunna, along with other earlier law collections, sheds light on the evolution of legal thought and societal norms in ancient Mesopotamia. While Hammurabi's Code is extensive and well-preserved, the existence of these earlier codes challenges the notion that it was the first written legal code.
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The Code of Urukagina, c. 24th century BCE, is the earliest law code from Mesopotamia
The Code of Urukagina, dating back to the 24th century BCE, is the earliest-known law code from Mesopotamia. It is believed to be three centuries older than the Code of Hammurabi, which was compiled in the 18th century BCE. Unfortunately, the original text of the Code of Urukagina has not survived to the present day, and our understanding of it is based on references found in other ancient works.
The Code of Urukagina is believed to have been written in Sumerian and Akkadian, the languages of ancient Mesopotamia. It is written in the casuistic form of "IF (crime) THEN (punishment)", a pattern that was followed in many subsequent law codes. The Code instituted fines and monetary compensation for bodily harm, as opposed to the ""eye for an eye" principle that was prevalent in later Babylonian law. However, murder, robbery, adultery, and rape were considered capital offences.
The Code of Urukagina provides valuable insights into the societal structure of ancient Mesopotamia. It reveals a hierarchical society, with the king, or "lugal", at the top. Below the king, there were two basic strata: the "lu", or free people, and the slaves ("arad" for males and "geme" for females). A woman's status changed throughout her life, from "dumu-mi" (daughter) to "dam" (wife), and if she outlived her husband, she became a "nu-ma-su" (widow), who was allowed to remarry.
The Code of Urukagina also sheds light on the legal system of the time. It is believed to have been a collection of legal precedents, with specific edicts covering a range of topics, including criminal law, family law, property law, and commercial law. The Code of Urukagina was likely a source of inspiration for later law codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, which was compiled by the Babylonian king Hammurabi and is known for its harsh punishments and focus on justice.
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Frequently asked questions
The Code of Ur-Nammu, written c. 2100-2050 BCE, is the oldest known surviving law code. It was discovered in Iraq in 1948.
The Code of Ur-Nammu was written by the Sumerian king Ur-Nammu or his son Shulgi of Ur.
The Code of Ur-Nammu contains 57 laws, 30 of which have been reconstructed. The laws cover topics such as homicide, sexual offences, assault, false accusations, marriage, and property.
