Cecily Zamora
In November 2020, India's most populous state, Uttar Pradesh, introduced a law outlawing Love Jihad, a conspiracy theory that claims Muslim men are attempting to shift India's demographic balance by converting Hindu women to Islam through marriage. The law requires couples from different faiths to provide two months' notice to a district magistrate before getting married, who would decide if the conversion was voluntary. The law disproportionately affects Muslims as Islamic law requires non-Muslims to convert for the marriage to be sanctified. Many scholars believe that Love Jihad is a weapon to target the Muslim community and breaches UN standards on freedom of religion and belief. The law has faced opposition from those who believe it is anti-Islamic and that it contradicts UN gender equality standards. Several other Indian states have also introduced or are planning to introduce similar laws.
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What You'll Learn
The history of love jihad laws in India
"Love jihad" is an Islamophobic conspiracy theory promoted by right-wing Hindutva activists. The conspiracy theory claims that Muslim men target Hindu women for conversion to Islam through seduction, deception, kidnapping, and marriage. It is believed to have originated from the 1947 partition of India, which resulted in the creation of two countries: Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. This partition led to large-scale migration and reports of sexual predation and forced conversions of women by men of both faiths.
In recent years, the conspiracy theory has been used as a political tool, with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) promising to enact laws banning "love jihad" during their election campaigns in 2021. In 2020, the state of Uttar Pradesh, governed by the BJP, passed the "Uttar Pradesh New Bill on Prohibition of Conversion in other Religion," which specifically targeted "love jihad." The bill imposes a sentence of up to five years of imprisonment for those found guilty.
The "love jihad" narrative has been criticized for its similarities to historic hate campaigns and Euro-American Islamophobia, as well as its disregard for women's rights and choice. Repeated police investigations have failed to find evidence of any organized plan of conversion, and reporters have exposed claims of "love jihad" as exaggerated or deliberate inventions. Despite this, the conspiracy theory has fueled violent incidents, including assaults, murders, and riots, with Muslim men in relationships with Hindu women bearing the brunt of the violence.
In 2025, Goa Chief Minister Pramod Sawant announced plans to introduce anti-conversion laws similar to those in Uttar Pradesh to combat "love jihad" cases in the state. This move was met with opposition, with critics arguing that the "love jihad" narrative was imported from national discourse and did not reflect the ground reality in Goa. The chief minister claimed that Goa had previously reported "love jihad" cases and promised to release the data soon.
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The impact of love jihad laws on interfaith marriages
"Love jihad" is a theory that claims Muslim men are conspiring to seduce and marry Hindu women to convert them to Islam. The term was first used in 2009 by Hindu nationalist groups, but the concept has existed since the partition of India and Pakistan. In 2020, the state of Uttar Pradesh passed an ordinance to curb "forcible or dishonest" religious conversions for marriage, with penalties including up to 10 years in jail. Similar laws have been implemented in Uttarakhand and Madhya Pradesh, and other states are considering following suit.
The impact of these laws on interfaith marriages has been significant. Support groups for interfaith couples in Delhi and Uttar Pradesh have reported a spike in calls for help as individuals navigate new obstacles to marriage. The laws require couples to give one or two months' notice to the district magistrate or marriage registrar before they can convert or marry, and during this time, objections to the union can be filed. This requirement has been particularly detrimental to women, as it allows families to exert control and prevent their daughters from marrying outside their religion. In some cases, women have been locked up, had their property confiscated, and even faced violence for engaging in interfaith relationships.
The "love jihad" laws have been criticised for being Islamophobic and targeting the Muslim community. They compromise the personal freedoms of individuals from minority communities, particularly women, under the guise of protecting societal interests. The laws reflect and fuel communal distrust and stereotypes, and they give legitimacy to Islamophobic biases and state-endorsed Islamophobia. They also reinforce caste hierarchies, patriarchal control, and socio-religious boundaries, affecting the personal lives of countless individuals.
Some have argued that the laws are unnecessary, as the National Investigation Agency found no evidence of a coordinated conspiracy of "love jihad" in 2018. Additionally, the assumption that women are helpless and easily seduced by Muslim men is demeaning and infantilising, denying women agency and the right to make their own decisions about marriage and religious conversion.
The impact of "love jihad" laws on interfaith marriages in India has been detrimental, creating new obstacles and hardships for couples wishing to marry outside their religion. The laws have particularly affected women, who face increased control and restrictions on their freedom of choice in marriage.
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The role of the Bharatiya Janata Party in the creation of love jihad laws
The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has been a key advocate for the creation of "love jihad" laws in India. The party has pushed for legislation to curb what it refers to as the ""menace of love and land jihad".
Union Home Minister Amit Shah stated that the BJP would enact laws to tackle "love jihad" in Assam if voted into power. He addressed an election rally, promising to enforce a deradicalisation policy to identify and suppress organisations and individuals promoting communal exclusion and separatism.
In Maharashtra, the BJP-led Mahayuti government, headed by Chief Minister Devendra Fadnavis, has also expressed its commitment to introducing a law against "love jihad" or "forced religious conversion". Mangal Prabhat Lodha, a BJP leader and state cabinet minister, asserted that such incidents are on the rise, particularly in Mumbai, with a significant number of cases involving Hindu girls.
In Goa, Chief Minister Pramod Sawant announced plans to introduce anti-conversion laws similar to those in Uttar Pradesh to combat "love jihad" cases. Sawant claimed that Goa had previously reported such cases and promised to release the data soon. He called on the Congress party to support the proposed law, stating that targeted cases were occurring.
The BJP's push for "love jihad" laws has faced opposition from some of its allies and the opposition. Concerns have been raised about the potential impact on interfaith marriages and the discrimination against a specific community. Despite these objections, the BJP has continued to advocate for such laws, with BJP MLA Usha Thakur even calling for Sharia-like punishments for those found guilty of "love jihad".
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The human rights implications of love jihad laws
Love Jihad is a conspiracy theory that claims Muslim men are targeting Hindu women for conversion to Islam by seducing them, feigning love, using deception, kidnapping, and marriage. This conspiracy theory is promoted by right-wing Hindu nationalist activists and has been used to justify anti-conversion laws in India.
Secondly, Love Jihad laws contribute to the marginalization and persecution of the Muslim community in India, particularly men. The laws are rooted in Islamophobia and portray Muslims as barbaric and hypersexual, perpetuating harmful stereotypes. Muslim men are presumed guilty and must navigate a biased legal system, where they are forced to defend themselves and their religious choices. This dynamic shifts the burden of proof onto the accused, which is a violation of their human rights.
Additionally, these laws have real-world consequences for women, particularly those who choose to marry outside their religion or caste. Women who make such choices have faced social sanctions and even violence. The laws effectively nullify their right to choose their partners and practice their religion, infringing upon their right to dignity and equality.
The implications of Love Jihad laws also extend beyond the individuals directly impacted. By targeting and excluding Muslims, these laws contribute to a larger climate of religious intolerance and discrimination in India. This climate has been linked to violent incidents, including riots and assaults, further exacerbating human rights abuses.
Overall, Love Jihad laws in India have serious human rights implications, including violations of freedom of religion, personal autonomy, equality, and dignity. These laws contribute to a discriminatory environment and infringe upon the basic human rights of those they target.
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The enforcement of love jihad laws and the number of arrests made
In November 2020, India's most populous state, Uttar Pradesh, introduced a law outlawing so-called "love jihad". The law is officially named the Prohibition of Unlawful Religious Conversion Ordinance, 2020. It is also referred to as an anti-conversion law.
The law requires couples from different faiths to provide two months' notice to a district magistrate before getting married. The judicial official would then have the discretion to decide if the conversion was through compulsion. If the conversion is deemed to be forced, the offending person could be denied bail and sentenced to up to 10 years in prison. The law applies to all religions, but in practice, it disproportionately affects Muslims, as Islamic personal law requires a non-Muslim to convert for the marriage to be sanctified.
The law was passed to target interfaith marriages between Muslims and Hindus. It was enacted in response to a conspiracy theory that Muslim men are attempting to shift India's demographic balance by converting Hindu women to Islam through marriage or feigning love. This theory gained traction after the election of Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2014.
The enforcement of the law has been criticised for targeting only Hindu-Muslim marriages and for invading personal privacy with respect to choosing one's marital partner. Critics argue that it breaches UN international standards on freedom of religion or belief and gender equality.
Within a month of the law's enactment in Uttar Pradesh, 35 people had been arrested under the Act. Eight arrests were made in Etah, seven from Sitapur, four from Greater Noida, three each from Shahjahanpur and Azamgarh, two each from Moradabad, Muzaffarnagar, Bijnor and Kannauj, and one each from Bareilly and Hardoi.
In addition to Uttar Pradesh, four other Indian states have adopted similar laws: Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, and Gujarat. Goa's Chief Minister has also announced plans to introduce an anti-conversion law to combat "love jihad" cases, despite opposition from some who argue that there is no data to support the existence of such cases in the state.
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Frequently asked questions
The Love Jihad Law, enacted in eight out of twenty-nine Indian states, requires couples from different faiths to provide two months' notice to a district magistrate before getting married. The law disproportionately affects Muslim men and Hindu women, as Islamic personal law requires a non-Muslim to convert to sanctify the marriage.
The judicial official has the power to decide if the conversion was through compulsion. If the official decides that it was, the offending person can be denied bail and sentenced to 10 years in prison.
The first state to implement the Love Jihad Law was Uttar Pradesh in November 2020. Since then, at least four other Indian states (Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, and Assam) have planned to bring in similar anti-conversion laws.
The Love Jihad Law aims to stop interfaith marriages in India, specifically between Muslims and those of Hindu background. The law emerged from a conspiracy theory that Muslim men are attempting to shift India's demographic balance by converting Hindu women to Islam through marriage.
Critics argue that the Love Jihad Law is anti-Islamic and breaches UN international standards on freedom of religion or belief. They claim that the law disproportionately affects Hindu women, implying that they cannot make the right choice for themselves. The law has also been criticised for targeting and attacking a particular community, the Muslim community in India.
