Gavin Howe
The commons is a term used to describe natural and cultural resources that are accessible to all members of a society, including water, air, and habitable land. Commons are held in common, even when owned privately or publicly, and are managed by communities for individual and collective benefit. The tragedy of the commons is an economic theory that claims that individuals tend to exploit these shared resources, resulting in overconsumption and depletion. This theory, introduced by William Forster Lloyd in 1833 and popularized by ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968, has been widely criticized for overlooking the fact that communities can effectively self-govern their shared resources without resorting to market or governmental solutions. The commons has also expanded beyond natural resources to include digital commons, knowledge commons, and cultural commons.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| The commons is the cultural and natural resources accessible to all members of a society | Water, air, habitable earth, knowledge, information, culture, health, etc. |
| Commons are held in common even when owned privately or publicly | |
| Commons are managed by a community of users that self-governs the resource through institutions that it creates | Lobster conservation rules, acequia for irrigation systems in desert areas, etc. |
| Commons can be a model of progress that guides commoners to build counter-power in the economic and political field | |
| Commons can be shared at a low cost | |
| Commons can be managed sustainably without private property rights or governmental interventions |
Explore related products
What You'll Learn
Tragedy of the Commons
The tragedy of the commons is an economic theory that claims individuals tend to exploit shared resources to the point where demand exceeds supply, ultimately resulting in the resource becoming unavailable. The term was popularised by ecologist Garrett Hardin in his 1968 article "The Tragedy of the Commons", though the concept was introduced by William Forster Lloyd in 1833.
Hardin used the example of sheep grazing on common land. He noted that when grazing lands are held as private property, they are used prudently by the landholder to preserve the land and the health of the herd. In contrast, common grazing lands become over-saturated with livestock because the food the animals consume is shared among all sheepherders. This results in overconsumption and depletion of the shared resource.
Hardin's argument has been criticised for mistaking resources held and managed in common by a community with open access, or resources that are open to everyone. Studies have shown that managing a resource as a commons often has positive outcomes and avoids the tragedy of the commons. For example, the success of the Maine lobster industry has been attributed to local lobstermen's willingness to uphold and support lobster conservation rules, allowing them to effectively regulate the communal use of the resource.
The tragedy of the commons is often used to describe the effects of climate change, where the earth's natural resources are depleted without regard for the impact on future populations. This perspective proposes that the collective actions of individuals, organisations, and governments contribute to environmental degradation.
In the digital context, some scholars argue that digital resources are infinite and therefore immune to the tragedy of the commons. However, digital commons can still be considered finite resources within the context of privacy laws and regulations that limit access. For example, Wikipedia relies on individuals contributing to maintain its knowledge base without expecting direct compensation. If individuals act in their own immediate interest and no longer participate, this digital resource will deplete.
Canada's Environmental Assessment: A Legal History
You may want to see also
Explore related products
Commons Dilemma
The commons dilemma is a specific class of social dilemma in which people's short-term selfish interests are at odds with long-term group interests and the common good. The commons dilemma can be categorised as a social trap, where conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behaviour.
The commons dilemma is often studied in the context of groups or communities that are likely to under- or over-harvest common resources. The motivation for individuals to contribute to a commons resource is reflective of the theory because, if humans act in their own immediate interest and no longer participate, then the resource becomes depleted. For example, in the case of the Grand Banks fishery off the coast of Newfoundland, advancements in fishing technology meant that fisherfolk could catch massive amounts of codfish that were unsupported by natural replenishment. With no framework of property rights or institutional common regulation, the entire industry collapsed by 1990.
In the case of the commons, the community manages and sets the rules of access and use of the resource held in common. Studies have shown that managing a resource as a commons often has positive outcomes and avoids the so-called tragedy of the commons, a fact that Hardin overlooked. For example, the widespread success of the Maine lobster industry has been attributed to the willingness of Maine's lobstermen to uphold and support lobster conservation rules. These rules include harbour territories not recognised by the state, informal trap limits, and laws imposed by the state of Maine.
The tragedy of the commons is an economic theory claiming that individuals tend to exploit shared resources so that demand outweighs supply, and it becomes unavailable for the whole. The effects of climate change have been given as a mass example of the tragedy of the commons. This perspective proposes that the earth, being the commons, has suffered a depletion of natural resources without regard to the impact on neighbouring and future populations.
Evil and Good Multiclass: Lawful Morality's Complex Balance
You may want to see also
Explore related products
$51.19 $63.99
Commons Failure Theory
The term "tragedy of the commons" was popularised in 1968 by ecologist Garrett Hardin in his article "The Tragedy of the Commons". Hardin introduced the tragedy as a social dilemma, exposing the inevitability of failure that he saw in the commons. Hardin's argument has been widely criticised for mistaking commons, which are resources held and managed in common by a community, with open access resources, which are open to everyone.
The tragedy of the commons is an economic theory that claims individuals tend to exploit shared resources, leading to overconsumption and depletion of the resource. This occurs when individuals act in their own self-interest, disregarding the negative impact their actions may have on others. For example, an individual may believe that others will not act in the best interest of the group, justifying their own selfish behaviour. This can result in the overuse of a common-pool resource, leading to environmental harm and disregard for the public good.
Despite the popularity of the tragedy of the commons theory, some scholars have criticised it as a false and dangerous myth. Elinor Ostrom, an American political scientist, won the Nobel Prize for Economics in 2009 for her work on how local communities managed common pool resources. Ostrom's work highlighted the success of community management of common resources, challenging the idea that all commons are doomed to failure.
Police Retention of Your Phone: How Long is Too Long?
You may want to see also
Explore related products
Commons in Academia
The commons theory of law is a legal theory that emerged from academic discussions in the late 20th century, offering a critique of existing legal systems and proposing an alternative framework centred on the concept of the commons. While the theory has broad implications for social and political organisation, one key area of exploration and application is in the realm of academia and scholarly knowledge production. The concept of "Commons in Academia" envisions a shift from traditional intellectual property regimes towards a system that promotes sharing and collaboration in the creation and dissemination of knowledge.
At the heart of this concept is the idea that academic knowledge is a common resource that should be accessible to all, and that academic communities are custodians of this knowledge, responsible for its growth and preservation. This perspective challenges the traditional view of knowledge as a commodity to be owned and traded, instead emphasizing the social and collective nature of knowledge creation. It advocates for a more open and collaborative academic ecosystem, where knowledge is shared freely, and academic outputs are treated as part of a shared intellectual commons.
In practical terms, the implementation of the commons in academia could involve a range of practices and policies. Open access publishing, for instance, aligns with this vision by making scholarly research freely available to the public, removing paywalls and access restrictions. Open data initiatives also play a crucial role, ensuring that research data is shared openly, enabling reproducibility, and allowing for further analysis and exploration by other scholars. Additionally, the concept of the commons in academia extends beyond the dissemination of research outputs to include collaborative knowledge creation. This could involve fostering a culture of open collaboration in research, where scholars work together across disciplinary and institutional boundaries, sharing methods, data, and ideas, and co-creating knowledge that benefits from diverse perspectives and expertise.
The commons approach also has implications for academic recognition and reward systems. Traditional metrics of success, such as individual authorship, publication in high-impact journals, and intellectual property ownership, may need to be re-evaluated. Instead, the focus could shift towards recognising and valuing contributions to the commons, such as sharing data, code, or educational resources, as well as peer review, mentoring, and other forms of academic citizenship. This shift would encourage a more inclusive and diverse academic community, where a broader range of contributions are valued, and the benefits of knowledge creation are shared more equitably.
Furthermore, the commons in academia can also extend to educational resources and curricula. Open educational resources (OER) are materials that are freely available for use, adaptation, and distribution. OERs have the potential to reduce costs for students, enable educators to customise resources to their specific needs, and facilitate the sharing of high-quality educational content across institutions. By adopting and contributing to OER initiatives, academics can further contribute to the commons, ensuring that education is more accessible, equitable, and responsive to diverse learning needs.
In conclusion, the concept of the commons in academia offers a transformative vision for knowledge creation and dissemination. It challenges traditional proprietary models of intellectual property, advocating for openness, collaboration, and sharing. By embracing the commons, academia can contribute to a more equitable and accessible knowledge ecosystem, ensuring that the fruits of scholarly labour benefit not just individuals or institutions, but society as a whole. This paradigm shift requires not only changes in policies and practices but also a cultural shift towards valuing the commons and recognising the social value of knowledge as a shared resource.
Martial Law: Can Anyone Stop the President?
You may want to see also
Explore related products
Digital Commons
The commons theory of law refers to the cultural and natural resources accessible to all members of a society, including natural materials such as air, water, and a habitable Earth. These resources are held in common, even when owned privately or publicly. Commons can also refer to natural resources that groups of people (communities, user groups) manage for individual and collective benefit.
The digital commons refers to shared digital resources, such as software, knowledge, data, and cultural content, that are collectively produced and governed by a community and intended for public use. Digital commons are distinguished by open access, participatory management, and licensing practices that preserve reuse and redistribution. They play a vital role in areas such as education, research, software development, and civic engagement.
Examples of digital commons include wikis, open-source software, and open-source licensing. The key distinction between digital commons and other digital resources is that the community of people building them can intervene in the governing of their interaction processes and shared resources. The digital commons provides the community with free and easy access to information.
Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization that provides free copyright licenses for contributors to the digital commons. Popular image-sharing sites like Flickr and Pixabay provide access to millions of Creative Commons-licensed images within the digital commons. Creators of content in the digital commons can choose the type of Creative Commons license to apply to their work, which specifies the rights available to other users.
Sharia Law in the US: Is It Possible?
You may want to see also
Frequently asked questions
The commons theory of law is a social practice of governing a resource not by the state or market but by a community of users that self-govern the resource through institutions that it creates.
Traditional examples of commons include forests, fisheries, or groundwater resources. However, the term "commons" is now used for a broader set of domains, such as knowledge commons, digital commons, urban commons, health commons, and cultural commons.
The tragedy of the commons is an economic theory claiming that individuals tend to exploit shared resources so that demand outweighs supply, and it becomes unavailable for the whole. The tragedy of the commons occurs when an economic good is rivalrous in consumption, non-excludable, scarce, and a common-pool resource.
One example of the tragedy of the commons is overfishing. Advancements in fishing technology allowed fisherfolk to catch massive amounts of codfish that were unsupported by natural replenishment. This led to the collapse of the entire industry by 1990.
