Keith Mack
Natural law theory and utilitarianism are two contrasting philosophical viewpoints. Natural law theory, as outlined by Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, holds that moral standards are derived from the nature of human beings and the world. This theory is based on the idea of an Eternal Law, from which civil law and natural law are derived. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, was first proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789 and further refined by John Stuart Mill in 1859. This theory argues that pleasure or happiness should be pursued regardless of the means, and that moral judgments should be based on the equal consideration of interests, with actions evaluated impartially. While both theories have their own unique perspectives, they also share some similarities and points of overlap, particularly in their acknowledgement of an objective moral order.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Natural law theory | The moral standards that govern human behavior are objectively derived from the nature of human beings and the world. |
| Utilitarianism | Moral judgments should be based on the "equal consideration of interests", i.e., impartial perspective. |
| Natural law theory | The natural law is given by God and is naturally authoritative over all human beings. |
| Utilitarianism | The decision-making procedure is based on creating the best results possible. |
| Natural law theory | Includes theories of ethics, politics, civil law, and religious morality. |
| Utilitarianism | Act utilitarianism approves of actions that most people see as morally wrong. |
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What You'll Learn
- Natural law theory and utilitarianism have different views on the role of intention
- Utilitarianism is associated with the idea that 'the end justifies the means'
- Natural law theory is a theory of ethics, politics, civil law, and religious morality
- Utilitarianism is a moral theory based on impartial consideration of interests
- Natural law theory is associated with the idea of an Eternal Law
Natural law theory and utilitarianism have different views on the role of intention
Natural law theory and utilitarianism are two distinct ethical frameworks that guide human behaviour and decision-making. They differ in their views on the role of intention, with natural law theory emphasising the intrinsic morality of actions, while utilitarianism focuses on the consequences of those actions.
Natural law theory, as articulated by St. Thomas Aquinas, holds that moral standards are derived from the nature of human beings and the world. According to Aquinas, the principles of right are grounded in the principles of good. He argues that actions can be inherently flawed due to bad intentions, regardless of their potential for positive outcomes. This perspective aligns with the Kantian school of thought, which values the intrinsic rightness or wrongness of an action over its potential consequences.
Aquinas' conception of happiness is influenced by Aristotle and is defined as "an activity of the soul in accordance with reason and virtue." He further elaborates that happiness is the "beatific vision of God," reflecting his theological perspective. This definition serves as a foundation for his natural law theory, which asserts that all actions are directed towards achieving happiness, which he believes can only be fully realised after death.
In contrast, utilitarianism, first proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789, emphasises the pursuit of pleasure or happiness as the ultimate moral goal. The core principle of utilitarianism, as articulated by Bentham, is that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure." This suggests that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its ability to maximise pleasure and minimise pain.
Utilitarianism introduces the concept of act utilitarianism, which implies that certain acts are morally permissible or required based on their ability to maximise utility or happiness. This perspective has been criticised for disregarding traditional moral rules and potentially undermining trust in society.
Act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism differ in their approaches to moral rules. While act utilitarianism is more likely to disregard rules to achieve the greatest good, rule utilitarianism, as proposed by Mill, suggests that following societal, civil, and moral rules contributes to the overall greatest good.
In summary, natural law theory and utilitarianism differ in their treatment of intention. Natural law theory, influenced by Aquinas, emphasises the intrinsic morality of actions and the role of intention, while utilitarianism, as developed by Bentham and Mill, focuses on the consequences of actions and the pursuit of happiness or pleasure, potentially justifying means by their ends.
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Utilitarianism is associated with the idea that 'the end justifies the means'
Natural law theory is a broad term encompassing theories of ethics, politics, civil law, and religious morality. It is a moral theory that suggests moral standards that govern human behaviour are derived from the nature of human beings and the world. The natural law view holds that the law is given by God and is authoritative over all human beings. Classical natural law theory, as espoused by Thomas Aquinas, focuses on the overlap between natural law moral and legal theories.
Utilitarianism, on the other hand, is a moral theory that focuses on the consequences of actions, laws, or policies. It suggests that moral judgments should be based on the "equal consideration of interests", as Peter Singer calls it. This means that moral evaluations should be made impartially, without favouring certain individuals or groups. Bentham, a key utilitarian thinker, wrote that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure", suggesting that utilitarianism is derived from human nature.
While natural law theory emphasises inherent moral standards, utilitarianism focuses on the outcomes of actions. This leads to the association of utilitarianism with the idea that "the end justifies the means". Utilitarianism evaluates actions based on their consequences, aiming to create the best possible results. This perspective can lead to justifying actions that may be considered morally wrong by traditional standards if they maximise overall well-being. For example, a utilitarian perspective might justify breaking a promise if it leads to a greater overall good, which conflicts with the rigidity of traditional moral rules that form the basis for trust.
Act utilitarianism, a form of utilitarianism, suggests that certain acts are morally permissible or required, even if they conflict with widespread moral beliefs. Critics argue that act utilitarianism can lead to distrust in key societal figures, such as judges, doctors, and promise-makers, if they are seen as prioritising well-being maximisation over adhering to their duties.
However, it is important to note that utilitarianism also emphasises impartiality and rejecting self-interest. The "equal consideration of interests" principle aims to ensure that moral judgments are made without favouritism or bias. This aspect of utilitarianism may provide a counterargument to the idea that "the end justifies the means", as it suggests that the means should also be impartial and unbiased, not just the ends.
In conclusion, while utilitarianism's focus on consequences may suggest that "the end justifies the means", its emphasis on impartiality and equal consideration of interests provides a nuanced perspective. The tension between creating the best overall results and maintaining trust through rigid moral rules highlights the complexities within utilitarianism and its association with the idea that "the end justifies the means".
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Natural law theory is a theory of ethics, politics, civil law, and religious morality
"Natural law theory" is a label that has been applied to theories of ethics, theories of politics, theories of civil law, and theories of religious morality. While the theories are distinct, they share a common core: the belief that the moral standards that govern human behaviour are objectively derived from the nature of human beings and the world.
The natural law view holds that the laws are given by God and are naturally authoritative over all human beings. Classical natural law theory, as developed by Thomas Aquinas, focuses on the overlap between natural law moral and legal theories. According to Aquinas, principles of right are grounded in principles of good. He agrees with utilitarians and consequentialists that considerations of the greater good play a role in practical reasoning. However, he parts ways with them by asserting that an action can be so flawed, for example, by bad intention, that no good consequences can justify it.
Natural law theory in ethics is a form of moral realism, which holds that some positive moral claims are literally true. It is distinct from legal positivism, which denies the overlap between law and morality. The procedural naturalism of Lon L. Fuller, for instance, rejects the idea that there are necessary substantive moral constraints on the content of law.
Utilitarianism, on the other hand, is a moral theory that requires moral judgments to be based on the equal consideration of interests. It derives its principles from certain facts about human nature. Bentham, a key utilitarian thinker, wrote that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure". Utilitarians believe that when calculating the utility of actions, laws, or policies, an impartial perspective must be adopted. Act utilitarianism approves of actions that most people consider morally wrong, leading critics to argue that it is a false moral theory.
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Utilitarianism is a moral theory based on impartial consideration of interests
Natural law theory is a broad term that encompasses theories of ethics, politics, civil law, and religious morality. The core claims of the moral and legal theories are logically independent. The natural law view holds that the law is given by God and is naturally authoritative over all human beings. It asserts that moral standards governing human behaviour are objectively derived from the nature of human beings and the world. Classical natural law theory, as espoused by Thomas Aquinas, focuses on the overlap between natural law moral and legal theories.
Utilitarianism, on the other hand, is a moral theory that advocates for the impartial consideration of interests. It asserts that moral judgments should be based on the "equal consideration of interests," as Peter Singer describes it. This means that when evaluating the utility of actions, laws, or policies, we must do so from an impartial perspective, uninfluenced by self-interest or partiality towards specific groups. Bentham, a key utilitarian thinker, wrote that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure," suggesting that human actions are driven by these forces.
Utilitarianism, including both act and rule utilitarianism, emphasizes creating the best possible results. Act utilitarianism suggests that certain acts are morally permissible or required, even if they conflict with widely held moral beliefs. Critics argue that act utilitarianism can undermine trust in society by prioritizing the maximization of well-being over established moral rules. Foreseeable consequence utilitarians view the theory as a decision-making procedure, while actual consequence utilitarians see it as a criterion of right and wrong.
While natural law theory and utilitarianism differ in their fundamental approaches, there is some overlap. Aquinas's natural law view, for example, grounds principles of right in principles of good, aligning with utilitarian and consequentialist thinking. However, Aquinas also sides with the Kantians, acknowledging that actions can be flawed due to bad intentions, regardless of any potential good consequences. This distinction highlights the nuances within these philosophical schools of thought.
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Natural law theory is associated with the idea of an Eternal Law
Natural law theory is a broad term encompassing theories of ethics, politics, civil law, and religious morality. It is a moral theory that asserts that moral standards governing human behaviour are objectively derived from the nature of human beings and the world. Classical natural law theory, as espoused by Thomas Aquinas, intersects with moral and legal theories, asserting that natural law is given by God and is authoritative over all humans. This view holds that principles of right are grounded in principles of good, aligning with utilitarian and consequentialist perspectives.
The idea of Eternal Law within natural law theory posits that there exists an objective and transcendent moral order, often believed to be established by a divine power. This Eternal Law is believed to be universal, unchanging, and absolute, serving as the foundation for moral principles and natural laws. According to this perspective, the laws of nature and morality are not arbitrary but are rooted in the eternal and unchanging principles of the universe.
The concept of Eternal Law suggests that moral truths are discoverable through human reason and are inherent in the fabric of reality. It implies a belief in an objective moral standard that transcends human cultures, societies, and historical periods. This eternal moral order is thought to be accessible to human understanding, providing a basis for ethical decision-making and the establishment of just laws.
The association between natural law theory and the idea of Eternal Law highlights the theory's focus on intrinsic moral principles. It suggests that these principles are not merely human constructs but are inherent in the nature of the universe and its creator. This perspective provides a foundation for objective morality and legal standards, asserting that certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of cultural or societal norms.
The belief in Eternal Law within natural law theory has significant implications for ethics and law. It suggests that moral truths are discoverable through rational inquiry and contemplation of the natural world. This belief also justifies the existence of universal human rights and inherent human dignity, as these rights and dignity are believed to be rooted in the eternal moral order. The concept of Eternal Law provides a framework for evaluating laws and social structures, encouraging their alignment with these eternal principles.
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Frequently asked questions
Natural Law Theory is a label applied to theories of ethics, politics, civil law, and religious morality. It holds that moral standards that govern human behaviour are objectively derived from the nature of human beings and the world.
Utilitarianism is a moral theory proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789, with refinements by John Stuart Mill in 1859. It argues that pleasure or happiness must be pursued no matter the means of achieving it.
Natural Law Theory starts from a different premise than Utilitarianism. While Utilitarianism focuses on pleasure or happiness as the ultimate goal, Natural Law Theory, as proposed by Aquinas, is grounded in theology and the idea of an Eternal Law from which natural law derives.
Utilitarianism, especially in its act-based form, is more likely to disregard moral rules to achieve the greatest happiness. Natural Law Theory, on the other hand, emphasises following societal, civil, and moral rules to contribute to the overall greatest good.
There are similarities and differences between the two theories. While Natural Law Theory and Utilitarianism may have some overlap, they ultimately offer distinct perspectives on morality and the role of rules. However, a commitment to natural law theory of morality is consistent with the denial of natural law theory of law, as seen in the work of Jeremy Bentham.
