Cecily Zamora
Mesopotamia is widely known for its rich history and ancient civilization. One of the greatest achievements of Mesopotamians is the creation of the first written codified laws, which offer valuable insights into the social, political, economic, and legal landscape of the region. Among these, the Code of Ur-Nammu, dating back to the 21st century BC, is believed to be the oldest known code of law, though it is only partially preserved. The laws were inscribed on clay tablets in the Sumerian language and followed a casuistic form, linking crimes with their respective punishments. The Code of Hammurabi, developed by King Hammurabi in the 18th century BC, is another significant example of Mesopotamia's ancient legal system. This code, etched into a seven-foot-tall black stone stele, is renowned for its comprehensive nature and harsh punishments, reflecting the societal norms and justice system of its time.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Name | Code of Ur-Nammu |
| Date | c. 2100–2050 BC |
| Author | Ur-Nammu of Ur |
| Language | Sumerian |
| Format | Clay tablets |
| Location | Istanbul Archaeology Museums |
| Number of laws | 57 |
| Crime and punishment | Fines of monetary compensation for bodily damage |
| Capital offenses | Murder, robbery, adultery, rape |
| Social structure | Two strata: "lu" (free person) and "slave" |
| Marriage | Divorce compensation of one mina of silver for a first-time wife, half a mina for a widow |
| Adultery accusation | If proven innocent, the accuser must pay one-third of a mina of silver |
| Social mobility | A "dumu-nita" becomes a "gurus" (young man) after marrying |
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What You'll Learn
Code of Ur-Nammu: the oldest known surviving law code
The Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest known surviving law code from Mesopotamia, written in the Sumerian language on clay tablets c. 2100–2050 BC. It is arranged in a casuistic form, with a crime followed by its punishment, a pattern followed in nearly all later codes, including the Code of Hammurabi. The Code of Ur-Nammu is also notable for instituting monetary compensation for bodily injuries, which is considered very advanced for the oldest known code of law. For example, if a man divorces his first-time wife, he must pay her one mina of silver. However, if he divorces a former widow, he only needs to pay half a mina of silver.
The prologue, typical of Mesopotamian law codes, invokes the deities for Ur-Nammu's kingship, Nanna and Utu, and decrees "equity in the land". The code also reveals a glimpse of the societal structure during Ur's Third Dynasty. All members of society belonged to one of two basic strata: the lu or free person, or the slave (male: arad; female: geme). A woman (munus) went from being a daughter (dumu-mi) to a wife (dam), and if she outlived her husband, she became a widow (nu-ma-su), who could remarry.
The Code of Ur-Nammu was first translated in 1952 by Samuel Noah Kramer, who only had access to two fragments of a tablet found at Nippur in modern-day Iraq. These fragments are held at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums. Later, in 1965, two additional tablet fragments were found in Ur and translated, allowing for the reconstruction of 30 of the 57 laws. The author of the code is still under dispute.
The Code of Ur-Nammu is one of several earlier Mesopotamian law collections that predate the famous Code of Hammurabi by hundreds of years. These earlier collections were written in Sumerian and Akkadian and purport to have been written by rulers. They feature prologues and epilogues and uphold the "one crime, one punishment" principle. The Code of Ur-Nammu may have influenced the Code of Hammurabi, as scribes were still copying it when Hammurabi produced his own code.
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Code of Hammurabi: one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes
The Code of Hammurabi is one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes. It was proclaimed by Hammurabi, the sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon, who reigned from 1792 to 1750 BC. The code was compiled at the end of his reign, after he had expanded his kingdom to encompass all of Mesopotamia.
The Code of Hammurabi is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian and is the longest, best-organised, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. It is written on clay tablets and etched into a basalt stele that stands 2.25 metres (7 feet 4+1⁄2 inches) tall. The stele was rediscovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran, where it had been taken as plunder six hundred years after its creation. The stele now resides in the Louvre Museum.
The stele features an image in relief of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text, with one-fifth containing a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, and the remaining four-fifths containing the laws. The prologue describes how the god Shamash gave the laws to Hammurabi, and sets out his mission to rule justly and protect the weak. The laws are arranged in a casuistic form of IF (crime) THEN (punishment), a pattern followed in nearly all later codes.
The Code of Hammurabi includes 282 edicts, ranging from family law to professional contracts and administrative law. The penalties vary depending on the crime and the social status of the offender, with harsh punishments such as the removal of body parts. However, the code also includes the principle of innocent until proven guilty, and slaves are granted some rights.
The Code of Hammurabi bears strong similarities to earlier Mesopotamian law collections, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, and may have been influenced by them. It is a significant achievement of Mesopotamian civilisation, revealing the level of social, political, economic, and legal development of the society.
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Sumerian 'Lipit-Ishtar' and 'Ur-Nammu' predate Hammurabi's code
Hammurabi's Code, discovered in 1901, was once considered the earliest Mesopotamian law collection. However, it was soon found that there were several earlier collections, including the Code of Lipit-Ishtar and the Code of Ur-Nammu, both of which predate Hammurabi's Code.
The Code of Ur-Nammu, written c. 2100–2050 BCE, is the oldest known surviving law code from ancient Mesopotamia. It is written in Sumerian on clay tablets and is arranged in a casuistic form of "IF (crime) THEN (punishment)", a pattern followed in nearly all later codes. The laws instituted fines of monetary compensation for bodily damage, with murder, robbery, adultery, and rape as capital offenses. The code also reveals societal structures during Ur's Third Dynasty, with the king at the top, followed by the lu or free person, and the slave at the bottom.
The Code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, discovered in 1947, also predates Hammurabi's Code and seems to have been created primarily to deal with disputes arising from estate problems, inheritance, and debt enslavement. It is much closer to the Code of Ur-Nammu in language and legal philosophy than to Hammurabi's Code.
Hammurabi's Code, established around 1750 BCE, was influenced by earlier collections, including the Code of Ur-Nammu and the Code of Lipit-Ishtar. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian and is the longest, best-preserved, and most well-organized legal text from ancient Mesopotamia. The primary copy is inscribed on a basalt stele, featuring an image of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. The text contains a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, with the remaining sections outlining specific laws.
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The Code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin
The Code of Lipit-Ishtar is written in the Sumerian language using cuneiform script. It consists of a prologue, a main body containing civil and penal laws, and an epilogue. The prologue invokes the gods An and Enlil, who are said to have invested Lipit-Ishtar as "the country's prince" or "the king of all the lands" in order to establish justice and eradicate crime and violence in the land. The prologue also mentions Lipit-Ishtar's recent freeing of slaves from Nippur, Ur, and Isin.
The main body of the code contains almost 40 to 50 legal provisions, introduced by the Sumerian word "tukun-be", meaning "if". The provisions cover a range of topics, including boats, agriculture, fugitive slaves, false testimony, foster care, apprenticeship, marriage and sexual relationships, and rented oxen. Notably, the transmitted provisions do not include any crimes punishable by death. One example of a provision is that false accusers must bear the punishment for the crimes they have alleged.
The epilogue mentions the erection of a stele and includes blessings for those who honour it and curses for those who desecrate or destroy it. The Code of Lipit-Ishtar is considered to be similar in structure to the Code of Ur-Nammu and is believed to have influenced the later Code of Hammurabi, which is the most well-known and preserved legal text from ancient Mesopotamia.
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The Laws of Eshnunna
The laws are arranged in a conditional form of "If A then B", a pattern followed in other Mesopotamian laws. The majority of offences were penalized with pecuniary fines, but some serious offences such as burglary, murder, and sexual offences were penalized with death. The laws also show signs of social stratification, focusing on two different classes: the muškenum and awilum. The muškenum has been interpreted as referring to an "ordinary citizen", while the awilum refers to free men and women.
The audience of the Laws of Eshnunna is more extensive than in earlier cuneiform codifications, including free men and women, wives, sons, and slaves of both sexes. The offences of the Laws of Eshnunna have been divided into five groups by Reuven Yaron, a distinguished Israeli scientist and one of the foremost experts on this collection of laws.
The discovery of the Laws of Eshnunna, along with the Code of Hammurabi, has contributed significantly to illuminating the development of ancient and cuneiform law.
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Frequently asked questions
The Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest known surviving law code from Mesopotamia, written c. 2100–2050 BC.
The Code of Ur-Nammu was written on clay tablets in the Sumerian language.
The Code of Ur-Nammu contains strong statements of royal power, such as "I eliminated enmity, violence, and cries for justice". It also institutes fines of monetary compensation for bodily damage and outlines societal structure.
Fragments of the Code of Ur-Nammu were discovered in Nippur, Iraq, and are now held at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums. Other fragments are held at the Iraq Museum in Baghdad and the British Museum.
