Kara Sears
The murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964 led to the development of the 'bystander effect' theory in psychology. The original reporting by the New York Times, that 38 witnesses did nothing while Genovese was being brutally attacked, was eventually debunked. However, the story brought attention to the need for an emergency calling system, and three years later, the 911 system was implemented.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Name of the law | 911 emergency calling system |
| Reason for creation | To make it easier for people to call for help in an emergency |
| Inspiration | Kitty Genovese's murder and the bystander effect theory |
| Implementation | Became the national emergency number in 1968 |
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What You'll Learn
The 911 emergency calling system was created
The murder of Kitty Genovese is a tragic story that has become a symbol of the "bystander effect". On March 13, 1964, 28-year-old Kitty was brutally raped and stabbed to death outside her apartment in Kew Gardens, Queens, New York City. The public outrage that followed her murder was due to the perception that 37 to 38 witnesses saw or heard the attack and did nothing to help her. The original reporting of The New York Times, which claimed that a large number of bystanders were present but failed to intervene, was later debunked, and it was revealed that there were far fewer witnesses and several tried to help Genovese. However, the story of her murder and the apparent inaction of her neighbours had a profound impact on society.
The concept of the "bystander effect" emerged from this tragedy, with psychologists coining the term to describe the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when others are present due to diffusion of responsibility and social influence. Genovese's case brought to light the complexities of human behaviour in emergency situations and the challenges of urban living.
The impact of Genovese's murder extended beyond psychology and into law and emergency response systems. The 911 emergency calling system was created in the aftermath of this incident. Before the implementation of the 911 system, calling the police required knowing the local precinct, looking up the number, and calling the station directly. The new system streamlined the process, making it easier for people to seek help in emergency situations.
The development and implementation of the 911 system were a collaborative effort involving officials from New York City and other cities across the nation. By February 1968, just a few years after Genovese's murder, the 911 number became the national emergency number. This system aimed to provide a centralised and efficient way for people to request assistance during emergencies, addressing the challenges highlighted by the tragic death of Kitty Genovese.
The creation of the 911 emergency calling system was a significant step towards improving public safety and emergency response capabilities in the United States. It empowered individuals to take action during emergencies by providing a standardised and easily accessible means of contacting authorities. The impact of Genovese's story on the development of this system underscores the importance of effective emergency response systems and the role they play in protecting communities.
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The 'bystander effect' theory was established
On March 13, 1964, 28-year-old Kitty Genovese was brutally murdered outside her apartment in Kew Gardens, Queens, New York City. She was raped and stabbed to death in two separate attacks while returning home from her job as a bartender.
The murder gained widespread attention due to reports that 38 witnesses saw or heard the attack but failed to intervene or call the police. However, subsequent investigations revealed that the extent of public apathy was exaggerated, and the actual number of witnesses was likely much lower. Nonetheless, the story of Genovese's death and the alleged inaction of her neighbours became a staple of psychology textbooks and a symbol of the "bystander effect".
The "bystander effect" is a psychological theory that emerged from the investigation into Genovese's murder. It posits that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present due to diffusion of responsibility and social influence. In other words, the presence of others leads to a diffusion of responsibility, where individuals assume that someone else will take action or that the situation is not as severe as it seems. This phenomenon has been observed in various contexts, including urban living, where it can be confusing and chaotic, and group dynamics, where individuals may redefine the situation based on the reactions of others.
The murder of Kitty Genovese had a significant impact on society and popular culture. It inspired the creation of the 911 emergency calling system, which became the national emergency number in 1968. Genovese's story has also been portrayed in movies, television shows, books, and music, often serving as a chilling allegory about the reliance on neighbours for help and the callousness of urban living.
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The case inspired movies, TV shows, and books
The murder of Kitty Genovese inspired several movies, TV shows, books, and music. The story of 38 witnesses doing nothing while Genovese was brutally murdered became a staple of introductory psychology textbooks in the United States, Britain, and many other countries. It also inspired a folk song by Phil Ochs, titled "Outside of a Small Circle of Friends", released in 1967. The song relates five different situations that should prompt action from the narrator, but in each case, the narrator concludes that it wouldn't interest anyone outside of a small circle of friends.
The case inspired the following movies and TV shows:
- The Perry Mason episode, "The Case of the Silent Six" (November 21, 1965).
- The American television movie, Death Scream (1975), starring Raúl Juliá.
- The Law & Order episode "Remand" (1996).
- The Law & Order: SVU episode "41 Witnesses".
- Season 2, episode 1 of the Investigation Discovery Channel's A Crime to Remember series.
- The documentary, The Witness.
Genovese's murder also inspired the following books:
- Kitty Genovese: A True Account of a Public Murder and Its Private Consequences by Catherine Pelonero.
- No One Helped: Kitty Genovese, New York City, and the Myth of Urban Apathy (2016) by Marcia M. Gallo, which won in the LGBT Nonfiction category at the Lambda Literary Awards.
- Kitty Genovese: The Murder, the Bystanders, the Crime That Changed America by Kevin Cook.
- Harlan Ellison's short story, "The Whimper of Whipped Dogs".
- The Tipping Point by Malcolm Gladwell.
- Ryan David Jahn's novel, Good Neighbors.
The murder also led to the development of the "'bystander effect' theory in psychology, which is now taught in introductory psychology courses worldwide. The theory posits that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present due to diffusion of responsibility and social influence.
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The public reaction to street crime was questioned
The murder of Kitty Genovese gained widespread attention due to reports that 38 witnesses saw or heard the attack but failed to intervene or call the police. This incident sparked a national discussion about bystander intervention and the public reaction to street crime.
The media coverage of the Genovese murder alleged that many witnesses refused to come to her aid, despite her screams for help. This led to the coining of the term "bystander effect" or "Genovese syndrome", a psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when others are present due to diffusion of responsibility and social influence. The case became a staple of psychology textbooks and continues to be referenced in popular culture through movies, television shows, books, and music.
However, subsequent investigations revealed that the extent of public apathy was exaggerated. While some neighbors heard Genovese's cries, many did not realize the severity of the situation. It was found that about a dozen neighbors witnessed the murder, out of which two called the police, and none intervened until the attacker left.
The Genovese murder also had a personal impact on her brother, Bill Genovese, who enlisted in the military at 19, partly inspired by a sense of duty to help others, as he believed his sister had received no assistance during the attack. The family avoided publicity and inquiries about the case to shield information from their mother, who was deeply affected by the tragedy. Bill later began researching his sister's life and death, finding solace in interviewing surviving witnesses and learning that she hadn't been alone when she died.
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The story highlighted the need for duty-to-aid laws
The murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964 brought to light the concept of the "'bystander effect)", which suggests that individuals are less inclined to offer assistance to a victim when others are present due to diffusion of responsibility and social influence. The story gained widespread attention when it was reported that 38 bystanders witnessed or heard Genovese's attack but did not intervene or call the police. However, it was later revealed that the number of bystanders was likely much lower, and some did attempt to help.
The public reaction to Genovese's murder highlighted a sense of disbelief in the ability of law enforcement to protect against street crime and a belief that taking matters into one's own hands was the only solution. This was further exacerbated by similar incidents that occurred later, such as the murder of Sandra Zahler ten years after Genovese's death, where neighbours again failed to take action despite hearing screams and signs of struggle.
The Genovese case became a symbol of the bystander effect and the callousness of urban living, with the story being taught in psychology textbooks and portrayed in various forms of media, including movies, television shows, books, and music. The impact of her murder also extended to the development of the 911 emergency calling system, as it highlighted the need for a streamlined process to request assistance during emergencies.
The story of Kitty Genovese and the subsequent development of the bystander effect theory underscored the importance of duty-to-aid laws. While some countries have implemented such laws to encourage intervention in emergencies, others, like the United States and England, have not. The absence of duty-to-aid laws can contribute to a sense of ambiguity about the expectations and responsibilities of individuals when they encounter a crisis.
The impact of the Genovese case on the understanding of the bystander effect and the subsequent call for duty-to-aid laws has been significant. It serves as a reminder that the presence of others at the scene of a tragedy can sometimes inhibit action rather than facilitate it, and that clear legal expectations can play a role in encouraging intervention and assistance.
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Frequently asked questions
Kitty Genovese's death inspired the creation of the 911 emergency calling system.
The 911 system became the national emergency number in 1968.
The "bystander effect" is a theory in psychology that states that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present due to diffusion of responsibility and social influence.
Winston Moseley, Kitty Genovese's killer, was found guilty of first-degree murder and initially sentenced to death. However, his sentence was later amended to life in prison, and he died in prison in 2016.
