Cecily Zamora
In the Philippines, the president, as head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, may declare martial law in case of invasion or rebellion, when public safety requires it. The declaration of martial law grants the president extensive powers, including the ability to suspend civil rights and civil law, and subject civilians to military tribunals. On September 23, 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos announced that he had placed the Philippines under martial law, marking the beginning of a 14-year period of one-man rule. Marcos justified his decision by citing threats from communist and Islamic insurgencies and violent student demonstrations. However, critics argue that Marcos declared martial law to prolong his stay in power and cover up ill-gotten wealth. The period of martial law in the Philippines was marked by widespread human rights abuses, including arbitrary arrests, torture, enforced disappearances, and extrajudicial killings.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of declaration | 23 September 1972 |
| Person who declared | President Ferdinand Marcos |
| Reason for declaration | To counter violent student demonstrations, threats of communist insurgency, and the Muslim separatist movement |
| Time period of martial law | 14 years |
| End date of martial law | 25 February 1986 |
| Outcome | Widespread human rights violations, including arbitrary arrests, detentions, enforced disappearances, torture, and killings |
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What You'll Learn
Marcos' justifications for declaring martial law
On 23 September 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos announced that he had placed the Philippines under martial law. This marked the beginning of a 14-year period of one-man rule that would effectively last until Marcos was exiled from the country on 25 February 1986.
There are several reasons why Marcos may have declared martial law. Firstly, Marcos justified his decision with his concern that the country was in peril from communist and Islamic insurgencies. He cited the acquisition of arms by the New People's Army, and the Muslim separatist movement of the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) as evidence of this. Marcos also claimed that martial law was necessary to "'save the republic' and 'reform society' after the failure of American-style democracy. He argued that the Philippines needed his iron-fisted leadership to maintain stability.
Another reason for declaring martial law may have been to enable Marcos to stay in power. The 1935 Philippine Constitution allows a President a maximum of two consecutive four-year terms. Marcos was elected in 1965 and re-elected in 1969, meaning he could not run again in 1973. By declaring martial law, Marcos abolished Congress, dissolved the vice presidency, and cancelled the 1973 election. He also arrested opposition politicians and jailed critics of his administration.
Furthermore, some critics ascribe an economic component to Marcos's motivations. They argue that martial law allowed for the efficient exploitation of the country's resources by acquiescing to the global market system. It also allowed Marcos to suppress the growing opposition to his rule, as evidenced by the First Quarter Storm—a period of civil unrest from January to March 1970 organised by students and labour groups to protest against authoritarianism, alleged election cheating, and corruption under Marcos.
Finally, Marcos's declaration of martial law may have been influenced by his desire to combat violent crime and improve social order. Under martial law, the regime was able to reduce violent urban crime, collect unregistered firearms, and suppress communist insurgency in some areas. Additionally, Marcos crafted a public relations environment that ensured that the majority of Filipino citizens would at least initially accept martial law.
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Human rights abuses under martial law
In the Philippines, the president, as head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, may declare martial law "in case of invasion or rebellion, when public safety requires it". Typically, its imposition is accompanied by curfews, the suspension of civil law, civil rights, habeas corpus, and the application or extension of military law or military justice to civilians.
The declaration of martial law by President Ferdinand Marcos in September 1972 marked the beginning of a 14-year period of one-man rule, which lasted until he was exiled from the country on February 25, 1986. Marcos's regime is historically remembered for its record of human rights abuses, targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against his dictatorship.
Amnesty International, the Task Force Detainees of the Philippines, and other human rights monitoring entities, documented extensive human rights violations during this period, including extrajudicial killings, torture, enforced disappearances, and incarcerations. There were 3,257 known extrajudicial killings, 35,000 documented cases of torture, 737 enforced disappearances, and 70,000 incarcerations.
In addition to the human rights abuses, the declaration of martial law also allowed Marcos and his family to hide secret stashes of unexplained wealth, which was later determined to be "of criminal origin". Marcos initially denied knowledge of human rights violations, but eventually confessed at the 1977 World Peace Through Law Conference in Manila that there had been "a number of violations of the rights of detainees".
The Human Rights Victims’ Claims Board, created by the government to address reparation claims made by victims of human rights abuses during martial law, received 75,000 claimants, but only recognised over 11,000 of these following its assessment. The ongoing fight for truth, justice, and reparations in the Philippines continues, with Amnesty International calling on all candidates in the 2022 national election to put human rights at the centre of their campaigns.
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The role of the US in supporting Marcos' regime
The US supported the Marcos regime in the Philippines for many years, even during martial law. The US provided hundreds of millions of dollars in aid, which was crucial in buttressing Marcos's rule. The US also supplied military equipment, such as rifles and aircraft, and supported various projects, including a $28 million war damage fund.
Marcos was strongly pro-American, and the personal interest and support of the US President were important to him. The US also blocked investigations into the Marcos regime's activities, including the harassment of Filipino dissidents in the US and the assassination of two anti-Marcos activists in Seattle.
The US continued to support Marcos even as his popular support eroded and a small but vocal opposition movement emerged in the US. The US also maintained its support despite reports of "gross human rights violations" and electoral fraud.
The US had strategic interests in the Philippines, particularly in maintaining a military presence in Southeast Asia after the Vietnam War. The Philippines was also seen as a bulwark against the spread of communism in the region.
The US began to distance itself from the Marcos regime in 1984, during the Reagan administration, as political opposition to Marcos grew and the regime's human rights abuses became more widely known. However, some critics allege that the US continued to covertly support Marcos and undermine his opponents.
The Marcos family fled to exile in Hawaii, and millions of Filipinos rejoiced. However, the post-Marcos political establishment in the Philippines has struggled, and the country's democratic institutions have been battered by poor governance and the rise of disinformation. The election of Bongbong Marcos, the son of the former dictator, as president in 2022, has been seen as a reversal of the country's progress toward democracy.
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The economic impact of martial law
In the Philippines, the president, as head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, may declare martial law "in case of invasion or rebellion, when public safety requires it". Historically, the imposition of martial law has been accompanied by curfews, the suspension of civil law and rights, and the application of military law or military justice to civilians.
During the period of martial law in the Philippines from 1972 to 1986, the country experienced significant economic impacts, both positive and negative. On the one hand, the regime was able to reduce violent urban crime, collect unregistered firearms, and suppress communist insurgency in some areas. Additionally, the country experienced growth in its gross national product.
However, the negative economic impacts were more profound and long-lasting. The administration of President Ferdinand Marcos was marked by world-beating cronyism and corruption, with historians believing that the dictatorship was responsible for thousands of extrajudicial killings, tortures, enforced disappearances, and incarcerations. The declaration of martial law allowed the Marcos family to hide secret stashes of unexplained wealth, and Marcos himself used martial law to consolidate political and economic control for himself, his family, and his close associates. Real wages were cut between 1970 and 1975 and did not increase until after 1986, with the value of real wages of Filipinos employed in agriculture plunging 14.3% from 1965 to 1986.
The Marcos administration also facilitated the foreign plunder of Philippine resources, bypassing constitutional restrictions on foreign exploitation of petroleum and gas resources and enacting laws that provided profitable opportunities for foreign investors. This led to the turnover of Malampaya resources to foreign oil and gas giants and the creation of special economic zones that benefited foreign capital. The administration's neoliberal policies, combined with massive debt and political upheaval, contributed to a severe economic crisis in the waning years of the regime.
Overall, the imposition of martial law in the Philippines had a negative impact on the nation's overall development, particularly in poverty reduction and inflation. Despite economic growth, broad sectors of the Filipino population experienced deepening poverty, and the country was dubbed the "sick man of Asia" after the Marcos dictatorship.
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The end of martial law and Marcos' exile
On September 23, 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos announced that he had placed the Philippines under martial law, marking the beginning of a 14-year period of one-man rule. Marcos justified his decision by citing the need to combat violent student demonstrations, alleged threats of communist insurgency, and the Muslim separatist movement. However, opposition figures accused him of using these threats as a pretext to consolidate power and extend his presidency beyond the two terms allowed by the 1935 Constitution.
During the martial law era, the Marcos regime was able to suppress violent urban crime, collect unregistered firearms, and curb communist insurgencies in certain areas. Marcos also implemented a land reform program and granted concessions to foreign investors, including prohibiting strikes by organized labor. However, despite the country's growth in gross national product, workers' real incomes declined, and few farmers benefited from land reform.
In the 1980s, Marcos came under increasing pressure from both domestic and international forces. The assassination of opposition leader Benigno Aquino in 1983 sparked renewed and intensified opposition to his regime. In late 1985, Marcos called a snap presidential election for February 1986, which was won by Corazon Aquino, Benigno's widow, who led a coalition of opposition parties. Marcos was declared the official winner, but the election results were met with widespread public outrage, leading to a revolt that ultimately drove him from power.
Fearing a potential civil war, the Reagan administration facilitated Marcos's exile to Hawaii, along with his family and close associates, in February 1986. Marcos's departure marked the end of his dictatorial rule and the restoration of a more democratic form of government in the Philippines. Marcos died in Hawaii in 1989, and in a historical twist, his son, Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr., was democratically elected as the president of the Philippines in 2022.
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Frequently asked questions
A president can declare martial law in the Philippines in case of invasion or rebellion, when public safety requires it.
Yes, martial law was declared in the Philippines on 23 September 1972 by President Ferdinand Marcos.
President Marcos justified his decision by citing threats from communist and Islamic insurgencies, violent student demonstrations, and a Muslim separatist movement.
The imposition of martial law led to widespread political repression, arbitrary arrests, human rights abuses, and economic decline.
Corazon "Cory" Aquino, the widow of Marcos' critic Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, became the president of the Philippines after Marcos was exiled from the country.
