Keith Mack
The law of gravity, also known as Newton's law of universal gravitation, was formulated by Isaac Newton and published in his work 'Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica' in 1687. The law describes gravity as a force stating that every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This law has been integral in understanding the motion of celestial bodies and has had a significant impact on the field of classical mechanics.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Name of the Law | Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation |
| Publication Year | 1687 |
| Publication Date | 5 July |
| Publication Title | Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Latin for 'Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy' (the Principia)) |
| Author | Isaac Newton |
| Description | Gravity as a force stating that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers of mass |
| Formula | F = G (the gravitational constant) |
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What You'll Learn
Newton's law of universal gravitation
Newton's law of gravitation states that any particle of matter in the universe attracts any other particle with a force that varies directly with the product of the masses and inversely with the square of the distance between them. The magnitude of the attractive force F is equal to G (the gravitational constant) multiplied by the product of the masses (m1 and m2) and divided by the square of the distance R: F = G(m1m2)/R^2. The numerical value of G is very small, which is why the force of gravity is the weakest force in nature.
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The inverse square law
The law can be written as:
> V = -GMm/r
Where G is the universal gravitational constant, M and m are the masses of the two objects, and r is the distance between them.
The law is derived from Newton's three laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation, which he published in his work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (Latin for "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy") in 1687. Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres of mass.
The development of Newton's law of universal gravitation was influenced by the work of earlier scientists such as Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, René Descartes, and Robert Hooke. Hooke, in particular, communicated his idea of inverse square dependence to Newton in a letter in 1679.
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The discovery of gravity
One of the most famous stories related to the discovery of gravity involves Isaac Newton and an apple tree. According to the legend, Newton was sitting under an apple tree when an apple fell on his head, inspiring him to formulate the Universal Law of Gravitation. While the details of this story are likely exaggerated, it captures an important insight. Newton observed that when an apple falls from a tree, its velocity changes from zero to a non-zero value as it moves towards the ground. This acceleration led Newton to propose the existence of a force, which he called "gravity," influencing the motion of objects.
Newton's insights into gravity were profound. He recognized that gravity was dependent upon the mass of objects. By considering the downward acceleration of an apple and the upward acceleration of the Earth, he concluded that gravity acts between two objects and is directly proportional to their masses. Moreover, he postulated that gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centers of the objects. This idea, known as the inverse square law, revolutionized our understanding of the universe.
In 1687, Newton published his groundbreaking work, "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (Latin for "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), commonly known as the "Principia." In this work, Newton combined his laws of motion with new mathematical analyses to explain the empirical results of Johannes Kepler's observations. Newton's law of universal gravitation unified previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with known astronomical behaviors. This law states that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
While Newton's law of gravitation provided a remarkable understanding of gravity, it did not fully explain certain phenomena, such as the precession of the perihelion of the orbits of the planets. This discrepancy was later addressed by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, which described gravity as a manifestation of curved spacetime rather than a force propagated between bodies. Einstein's theory allowed for a consistent description of the motions of light and mass, further refining our understanding of gravity.
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Gravity beyond Earth
Newton's law of universal gravitation describes gravity as a force stating that every particle attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres of mass. This law extends gravity beyond Earth, unifying the previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with known astronomical behaviours.
Newton's law of universal gravitation is about the universality of gravity. It states that all objects attract each other with a force of gravitational attraction. This force of gravitational attraction is directly dependent on the masses of both objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance that separates their centres. Newton's law of gravitation determines the trajectories of the planets and explains the patterns in their motion.
The weight of an object on Earth's surface is the downward force on that object, given by Newton's second law of motion, or F = m x a (force = mass x acceleration). The weight of an object depends on its location. For example, if an object is transported to the surface of the Moon, the gravitational acceleration would change because the radius and mass of the Moon differ from those of the Earth. Thus, the object will weigh much less on the surface of the Moon because the gravitational acceleration there is six times less than at the surface of the Earth.
Scientists are currently working to develop a theory of gravity consistent with quantum mechanics, a quantum gravity theory, which would allow gravity to be united in a common mathematical framework with the other three fundamental interactions of physics. Although experiments are being conducted to prove or disprove whether gravity is quantum, it is not known with certainty.
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Theories before Newton
Several theories explaining gravity were proposed before Isaac Newton formulated his law of gravity in 1665 or 1666. The first extant sources discussing theories of gravitation are found in ancient Greek philosophy. This work was furthered through the Middle Ages by Indian, Islamic, and European scientists, before gaining momentum during the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution.
The ancient Greeks, including Aristotle (4th century BC), believed that objects fell to the ground because seeking the ground was intrinsic to their nature. Aristotle also found that objects immersed in a medium tend to fall at speeds proportional to their weight. In the 1st century BC, Vitruvius understood that objects fall based on their specific gravity. In the 6th century AD, Byzantine Alexandrian scholar John Philoponus modified Aristotelian concepts of gravity with the theory of impetus.
In the 7th century, Indian astronomer Brahmagupta spoke of gravity as an attractive force. In the 14th century, European philosophers Jean Buridan and Albert of Saxony, influenced by Islamic scholars, developed the theory of impetus and linked it to the acceleration and mass of objects. Albert also developed a law of proportion regarding the relationship between the speed of an object in free fall and the time elapsed.
In the 16th century, Italians found that objects in free fall tend to accelerate equally. In 1632, Galileo Galilei put forth the basic principle of relativity and wrote about experimental measurements of falling and rolling objects. Evangelista Torricelli, a disciple of Galileo, reiterated Aristotle's model involving a gravitational centre, adding his view that a system can only be in equilibrium when the common centre itself cannot fall.
In 1666, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli developed the idea of mechanical equilibrium, a balance between inertia and gravity. Newton cited Borelli's influence on his theory. Borelli's work built upon that of René Descartes, who developed ideas of matter and action independent of theology, and Johannes Kepler, whose laws of planetary motion summarised Tycho Brahe's astronomical observations.
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Frequently asked questions
The law of gravity, also known as Newton's law of universal gravitation, was formulated in Isaac Newton's work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (Latin for "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published on July 5, 1687.
Newton's law of universal gravitation describes gravity as a force stating that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. In simpler terms, gravity is the force that pulls objects toward each other, with the force being stronger when the objects are closer together and have more mass.
Isaac Newton is often credited with discovering the law of gravity, although it is more accurate to say that he discovered the universality of gravity, as he unified previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with known astronomical behaviors. The popular story that an apple fell on Newton's head and he suddenly thought of the law of gravity is likely not true, but he may have been inspired by observing an apple fall from a tree and thinking about the forces acting upon it.
