Cameron Miranda
The Code of Hammurabi is widely regarded as the world's first code of law. Written around 1754 BCE, it consists of 282 laws, with punishments varying based on social status. The code was written by Hammurabi, the sixth king of Babylon, and is one of the oldest deciphered writings of its length in the world. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian and is known for its an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth (lex talionis) form of punishment. The code covered a range of topics, from slander and trade to slavery and divorce, and established standards for commercial interactions and justice.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Name of the king | Hammurabi |
| Dynasty | Sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon |
| Reign | 1792/1795-1750 BCE |
| Number of laws | 282 |
| Language | Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian |
| Form | Written on stone stele and clay tablets |
| Height of stele | 2.25 m (7 ft 4+1⁄2 in) |
| Year of discovery | 1901 |
| Place of discovery | Susa, present-day Iran |
| Current location of stele | Louvre Museum, Paris, France |
| Number of lines | 4,130 |
| Number of lines in prologue | 300 |
| Number of lines in epilogue | 500 |
| Number of lines containing laws | 4,130 - 300 - 500 = 3,330 |
| Number of social classes | 3 |
| Social classes | Amelu (elite), Mushkenu (free men), Ardu (slave) |
| Number of surviving copies | 1 (most complete) |
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What You'll Learn
Hammurabi, the sixth Babylonian king
Hammurabi, the sixth king of Babylon, is credited with writing the world's first code of law, known as the Code of Hammurabi. This code is one of the oldest and most well-preserved legal texts from ancient Mesopotamia, written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian around 1754 BCE.
Hammurabi's Code consists of 282 laws that were inscribed on stone steles and clay tablets. These laws covered a range of topics, including slander, trade, slavery, workers' duties, theft, liability, and divorce. The punishments outlined in the code varied based on social status, with three distinct classes: the amelu (the elite), the mushkenu (free men), and ardu (slaves).
One of the most well-known sections of the Code of Hammurabi is Law #196, which states the principle of "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (lex talionis). This law specifies that if someone destroys the eye of another person, their eye shall also be destroyed, and if someone breaks another's bone, their bone shall be broken. The law also includes monetary compensation for injuring a freeman or a slave, with higher compensation for freemen.
Hammurabi's Code is significant because it reflects the diversity of Babylonian society during his reign and the need for clear and precise laws that could be understood by all. It is also considered an early form of constitutional government, with principles such as the presumption of innocence and the ability to present evidence. The Code's establishment on public steles may have been intended to increase access to justice for all citizens.
Hammurabi's kingdom extended beyond Babylon, as he conquered and ruled ancient Mesopotamia, located in present-day Iraq. His empire fell apart after his death, and the city of Babylon was sacked and looted by invaders. However, his Code continued to influence later law codes, such as the Middle Assyrian Laws, the Neo-Babylonian Laws, and the Mosaic Law of the Bible.
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The Code of Hammurabi's 282 laws
The Code of Hammurabi, written around 1754 BCE, is one of the oldest and most complete written legal codes in the world. It was authored by Hammurabi, the sixth king of Babylon, and consists of 282 laws that establish standards for commercial interactions and set fines and punishments based on social status. The code is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian on stone steles and clay tablets.
The laws recognised three distinct social classes in Babylonian society: the property-owning elite (amelu), the free men (mushkenu), and the slaves (ardu). Punishments and fines varied depending on an individual's social class. For example, in the well-known Law #196, it is decreed that if someone destroys the eye of another, the punishment shall be the destruction of their own eye. However, if the perpetrator is a freeman, they must pay one gold mina, and if they are a slave, they are worth only half their price.
Nearly half of the Code of Hammurabi focused on contracts, and a third on household relationships. Women's rights were limited, primarily concerning marriage contracts and divorce rights. The code also covered other significant topics such as slander, trade, slavery, workers' duties, theft, and liability.
The Code of Hammurabi is regarded as an important milestone in the history of law. Modern scholars have admired its perceived fairness, respect for the rule of law, and recognition of the presumption of innocence. It is also notable for its influence on the Mosaic Law and its role in providing insights into the complexity of Old Babylonian society.
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The influence of the Code on later law
The Code of Hammurabi, written by Hammurabi, the sixth king of Babylon, around 1754 BCE, is one of the oldest and most well-preserved legal texts from ancient Mesopotamia. It consists of 282 laws, with punishments varying based on social status, and is famous for its "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (lex talionis) principle.
The Code's influence on later law collections is a subject of ongoing debate. Some scholars argue for direct influence, claiming that later codes, such as the Mosaic Law, are "directly, primarily, and throughout dependent" on the Code of Hammurabi. Others suggest indirect influence through cultural contact and intermediaries. The consensus, however, is that similarities are due to shared traditions and antecedents.
The Code of Hammurabi is also seen as an early form of constitutional government, promoting the notion of fair and impartial justice. It includes principles such as the presumption of innocence and the importance of evidence, which are foundational in modern legal systems. The Code's emphasis on transparency and clarity for citizens has had an iconic impact on legal discourse and the development of legal instruments.
The Code's influence can be traced to later Mesopotamian law collections, such as the Middle Assyrian Laws and the Neo-Babylonian Laws. Additionally, it is believed to have influenced Hittite laws outside of Mesopotamia, showcasing its broader regional impact.
The Code of Hammurabi is not without its criticisms. While it promoted fairness and justice, certain laws may be considered harsh or barbaric by modern standards. Nonetheless, it established a tradition of legal codification and written laws, setting a precedent for future legal systems and courts.
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The Code's social classes and punishments
The Code of Hammurabi, written around 1754 BCE, is one of the oldest and most comprehensive ancient legal texts in the world. It features a code of law from ancient Babylon in Mesopotamia, consisting of 282 laws with punishments that varied based on social status.
Social Classes
Hammurabi's Code recognises three main social classes:
- Awelu/awīlum: The elite, who had full civil rights. This group included the king and his court, high officials, professionals, and craftsmen. They were liable for harsher punishments and higher fines.
- Mushkenu/muškēnum: Free men, who may have been landless. They were required to accept monetary compensation and paid smaller fines. They lived in a separate section of the city.
- Ardu/wardum/amtum: Slaves, who had limited rights.
Women also had restricted rights, mostly concerning marriage contracts and divorce rights.
Punishments
The Code of Hammurabi is famous for its "'an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth' (lex talionis) form of punishment. Some examples of these punishments include:
- If someone destroyed another person's eye or broke their bone, the same would be done to them. However, if the victim was a freeman, the perpetrator had to pay one gold mina, and if the victim was a slave, the perpetrator had to pay half the slave's price.
- If a physician caused the death of a noble during surgery, they might have their hand cut off.
- If a homeowner died due to a house collapse, the builder would be put to death. If the homeowner's son died, the builder's son would also be put to death.
The Code also recognised the importance of the defendant's intentions and valued written evidence, especially in matters of contract. It established a presumption of innocence, with the first two laws prescribing punishments for unsubstantiated accusations.
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The Code's rediscovery in 1901
The Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes, was proclaimed by Hammurabi, the sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon, who reigned from 1792 to 1750 B.C. Written in about 1754 BCE, the code was rediscovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran. The site of Susa was more than 250 miles from the centre of Hammurabi's kingdom. It was led by French mining engineer Jacques de Morgan, who headed an archaeological expedition to Persia to excavate the Elamite capital of Susa. Egyptologist Gustave Jéquier, a member of the expedition, found the stele containing the Code of Hammurabi during the archaeological excavations.
The Code of Hammurabi was written on stone stele and clay tablets. The primary copy of the text is inscribed on a basalt stele 2.25 m (7 ft 4+1⁄2 in) tall. The stele was looted by invaders and rediscovered in 1901. The stele features an image in relief of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: one-fifth contains a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, while the remaining four-fifths contain what are generally called the laws. The laws were arranged in groups, so that citizens could easily read what was required of them.
The Code of Hammurabi is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian. The text was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium. The first copy of the text found, and still the most complete, is on a 2.25 m (7 ft 4+1⁄2 in) stele. The stele now resides in the Louvre Museum.
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Frequently asked questions
Hammurabi, the sixth king of Babylon.
The Code of Hammurabi was written around 1754 BCE.
The 282 laws were inscribed on stone stele and clay tablets.
The laws varied based on social status and included economic provisions, family law, criminal law, and civil law.
The original copy is currently on display at the Louvre Museum in Paris, France.
