Keith Mack
The Roman Republic was divided into three main branches: the Assemblies, the Senate, and the Consuls. The Assemblies, composed of the people, were the supreme repository of political power and had the authority to enact or reject laws, elect magistrates, administer justice, and declare war or peace. The Senate, composed of about 300 citizens who served for life, advised the magistrates and the people, and its opinion was largely deferred to despite not having the official right to create laws. The Consuls led with military power and directed the government for one year, with each consul having the power to veto the other. The Roman Republic's constitution was a set of uncodified norms and customs, along with written laws, that guided the procedural governance of the Roman Republic.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of branches | 3 |
| Legislative branch | The Assemblies, composed of the people |
| Executive branch | The Consuls |
| Advisory branch | The Senate |
| Assemblies composition | Only adult male citizens were permitted to participate |
| Assemblies powers | Plenary authority to make laws, elect magistrates, administer justice, and declare war or peace |
| Senate composition | About 300 citizens who served for life |
| Senate powers | Passed decrees, advised magistrates, resolved disputes between magistrates, oversaw the allocation of public resources and responsibilities |
| Consuls composition | Two consuls |
| Consuls powers | Led with military power, commanded the army, directed the government for one year, could choose a dictator in times of crisis |
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What You'll Learn
The Assemblies: the people's supreme repository of political power
The constitution of the Roman Republic was a set of uncodified norms and customs which, together with various written laws, guided the procedural governance of the Roman Republic. The constitution can be divided into three main branches: the Assemblies, the Senate, and the executive.
The Assemblies were composed of the people and served as the supreme repository of political power. Only adult male citizens were permitted to participate in the Assemblies, and they were most likely members of the upper class. The Assemblies had the authority to elect magistrates, accept or reject laws, administer justice, and declare war or peace. They were a sovereign authority, with the power to enact or reject any law, confer any magistracies, and make any decision. This view of popular sovereignty emerged from the Roman conception that the people and the state were one and the same. The people, when properly assembled, held the authority to override the norms and precedents of the republic as well as ancient laws.
The Assembly passed most laws and could also act as a court of appeal. The plebeian tribunes, considered embodiments of the plebeians, presided over the Assembly. The tribunes were sacrosanct, and their sacrosanctness was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill anyone who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. The Assembly also served as a means for politicians to engage with the public and receive feedback on their proposals.
The Senate
The Senate was the predominant political institution in the Roman Republic, with its authority derived primarily from custom and tradition. It was one of the few places where free political discussion could take place, and it was composed of the political elite. The Senate did not have the official right to create law, but its opinion, enshrined in a senatus consultum, was largely deferred to. The Senate resolved disputes between magistrates and oversaw the allocation of public resources and responsibilities, including provinces, to magistrates.
The Executive
The executive branch of the Roman Republic was led by two consuls, who commanded the army and directed the government for one year. Each consul had the power to veto, or overrule, the other. In times of crisis, the consuls could choose a dictator to rule in their place for a limited time.
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The Senate: an advisory council with substantial influence
The Roman Republic was founded in 509 BCE after the last Etruscan king of Rome was overthrown. The Senate was the predominant political institution in the Roman Republic, with its authority derived from custom and tradition. It was also one of the few places where free political discussion could take place. The Senate's ultimate authority was based on the prestige of its members, and it was composed of the political elite, with procedural influence allocated to influential ex-consuls. The Senate advised the magistrates and, while it did not have the legal authority to create laws, its opinions were usually deferred to.
The Senate passed decrees called senatus consulta, which were considered "advice" to magistrates. While these decrees did not have legal force, they were usually obeyed in practice. The Senate's power expanded over time, and it took on a greater role in civil law-making. The Senate directed the magistrates, especially the consuls, in their prosecution of military conflicts, and had enormous control over the civil government in Rome, particularly in managing state finances. Only the Senate could authorise the disbursal of public funds from the treasury. The Senate also resolved disputes between magistrates and oversaw the allocation of public resources and responsibilities, including provinces.
The Senate's membership was controlled by censors, who appointed new senators. Election to magisterial office resulted in automatic Senate membership, and membership was for life. The ethical requirements for senators were significant, and they were subject to various laws and punishments for non-compliance. The Senate also had the power to declare a law invalid under the lex Caecilia Didia.
In the early Republic, the Senate was politically weak, and its role was primarily advisory, functioning as a special committee. It consisted of 300-500 senators, initially only patricians, but later also plebeians. The Senate held fiscal responsibilities and regulatory power over the treasury, and was in charge of creating and maintaining public buildings.
The Senate's power and influence over law-making declined with the rise of Augustus and the transformation of Rome from a republic to an empire, with power shifting to a centralised imperial authority in the form of the emperor.
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Tribunes: representatives of the people
The Roman Republic was composed of three main branches: the Assemblies, the Senate, and the Consuls. The Assemblies, composed of the people, were the supreme repository of political power and had the authority to enact or reject any law, elect magistrates, administer justice, and declare war or peace. However, in practice, the Assembly was not representative of all citizens, as only adult male citizens were permitted to participate, and members were predominantly from the upper class.
The Senate, composed of about 300 citizens who served for life, was the advisory branch of the Roman government. While the Senate did not officially have the right to create laws, its opinions, known as senatus consulta, were highly influential and usually followed by magistrates. The Senate's authority was derived from the prestige of its members, who were primarily ex-consuls and other officers. Over time, the power of the Senate expanded, and it took on a greater role in civil law-making.
The Consuls were the leaders of the Roman Republic, holding supreme civil and military authority. They commanded the army, directed the government, and had the power to veto each other's decisions. In times of crisis, they could appoint a dictator to rule in their place for a limited time, usually six months.
Within this structure, the Tribunes were considered representatives of the people, specifically the plebeians. They were elected by the plebeians and presided over the assembly, which passed most laws and acted as a court of appeal. The Tribunes were sacrosanct, and any harm or interference with a Tribune during his term of office was considered a capital offense. They served as a check on patrician power and safeguarded the civil liberties of all Roman citizens through their veto powers.
The creation of the tribunate and the empowerment of the plebeian assembly, composed of all plebeians, granted plebeian citizens equal political rights and served as a balance to the power of the patricians. This evolution in the Roman Republic's government structure helped address the tension between the patricians and plebeians, which had been a significant source of conflict in the early days of the republic.
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Consuls: the executive branch
The Roman Republic was governed by a tripartite system, with executive, legislative, and aristocratic branches. The executive branch was led by two consuls, who were the highest-ranking ordinary magistrates in the Roman Republic. The consuls were the chief magistrates of the Roman state and were considered the second-highest level of the cursus honorum, or the sequence of public offices politicians could hold.
The consuls were elected by the people in the Comitia Centuriata, a popular assembly, and held office for a one-year term. Each consul had the power to veto the other's decisions, and they alternated each month in holding fasces, or taking turns leading, when both were in Rome. The consuls commanded the army, directed the government, and represented the state in foreign affairs. They also convened and presided over the Senate and the popular assemblies, executing their decrees.
The consuls had extensive powers in peacetime, including administrative, legislative, and judicial functions. In wartime, they often held the highest military command and had certain religious duties. The consulship was believed to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC, and the succession of consuls was not continuous in the 5th century BC. During this time, the consulship was sometimes replaced with a board of consular tribunes when the military needs of the state were significant.
The office of consul was usually limited to wealthy and noble families with distinguished records of public service, and after their terms expired, consuls were often appointed as governors of provinces. The appointment of consuls shifted from being elected by the people to being appointed by the state, and eventually, the emperor himself would name consuls. While the office of consul remained after the collapse of the republic in 27 BC, it lost most of its former power and became symbolic representatives of Rome's republican heritage.
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Legislative power: the right to enact or reject laws
The legislative power in the Roman Republic was shared between the Assemblies, the Senate, and the Consuls, with the Assemblies serving as the supreme repository of political power.
The Assemblies were composed of the people and had the authority to enact or reject laws, administer justice, and declare war or peace. However, only adult male citizens were permitted to participate in the Assemblies, and in practice, they were mostly members of the upper class. The Assembly of Centuries (comitia centuriata) was composed of all members of the army and elected consuls annually, while the Assembly of Tribes (comitia tributa) was composed of all citizens and approved or rejected laws and decided on issues of war and peace. The tribal assembly, along with the plebeian council, was responsible for the passage of most Roman laws in the middle and late republics. The Assemblies also elected all magistrates during the Roman Republic.
The Senate, on the other hand, was the advisory branch of the Roman government, composed of about 300 citizens who served for life. They were chosen by the kings, then by the consuls, and later by the censors. The Senate passed decrees called senatus consulta, which were officially "advice" to magistrates but were usually followed in practice. While the Senate did not have the official right to create laws, its opinions were highly respected due to the prestige of its members, and it had substantial influence on the magistrates. Over time, the Senate's power expanded, and it took on a greater role in civil law-making.
The Consuls were at the top of the executive branch and led with military power. Each consul had the power to veto the other, and in times of crisis, they could appoint a dictator to rule temporarily in their place.
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Frequently asked questions
The Assemblies, composed of the people, served as the supreme repository of political power and had the authority to enact or reject laws.
Only adult male citizens were permitted to participate in the Assemblies. This excluded the massive underclass and rural poor who were unable to travel to Rome.
There were two types of Assemblies: the Centuriate Assembly and the Tribal Assembly. The Centuriate Assembly was military in nature and voted on war and peace, while the Tribal Assembly was a non-military civilian assembly that elected magistrates without military power.
The Senate was the advisory branch of the Roman government and did not have the official right to create laws. However, they had substantial influence due to the prestige of their members, and their opinions were often deferred to in practice.
The Tribunes were considered the embodiment of the plebeians and presided over the Assemblies. They had veto powers and safeguarded the civil liberties of all Roman citizens.
