Keith Mack
The Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the Johnson-Reed Act, created quotas that made it harder for immigrants to enter the United States. This act introduced a national origins quota system, limiting the number of immigrants from each country to a certain percentage of the foreign-born population in the United States as recorded in the 1920 census. The quota system heavily favoured England and Northern European countries, while setting much lower quotas for immigrants from Southern and Eastern European countries, as well as completely excluding immigrants from Asia. This act was passed to establish a more permanent immigration law and address the `midnight races` issue, where passenger ships raced to reach the United States at the beginning of each month when new quota slots opened. While the national origins quota system officially ended in 1965 with the Immigration and Nationality Act, its legacy can still be seen in the current US immigration system.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Name of the Law | Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the Johnson-Reed Act or the National Origins Act |
| Year of Enactment | 1924 |
| Purpose | To solve the "midnight races" problem and establish a more permanent immigration law |
| Scope | Limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States through a national origins quota |
| Quota Calculation | 2% of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States as per the 1890 national census |
| Visa Requirements | Non-citizens seeking to enter the US were required to obtain and present a visa from a US embassy or consulate before arrival |
| Exemptions | No quotas for residents of the Western Hemisphere, including Canada, Mexico, and other neighbouring countries |
| Impact | Favoured immigration from England and Northern Europe, while limiting immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, Africa, and Asia |
| Replacement | Replaced by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which introduced a system based on immigrants' skills and family relationships |
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What You'll Learn
The Immigration Act of 1924
National Origins Quota:
The 1924 Act introduced a national origins quota system that limited immigration based on an immigrant's country of origin. The quota provided immigration visas to two percent of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States as per the 1890 national census. This formula was later adjusted to three percent based on the 1910 census data. The quota calculations were further refined to include the entire U.S. population, including natural-born citizens, which favoured immigrants from Western and Northern European countries with large populations of British descent.
Exclusion of Asian Immigrants:
Visa Requirements:
The Act implemented a visa system, mandating non-citizens seeking entry into the US to obtain a visa from a US embassy or consulate before their arrival. This "consular control system" marked a shift in immigration procedures and laid the groundwork for the establishment of the US Border Patrol, the country's first formal border control service.
Impact on Refugee Admissions:
The national origin quota system of the 1924 Act did not provide exceptions for refugees. This became problematic during the rise of Adolf Hitler and the ensuing refugee crisis in Europe. In 1939, Congress rejected a proposal to facilitate the migration of 20,000 children from Nazi Germany, and the US government denied entry to 900 Jewish refugees, citing filled country caps for Eastern Europe.
Annual Immigration Cap:
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National Origins Formula
The National Origins Formula was a quota system that limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States. It was introduced by the Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the Johnson-Reed Act. The quota system was based on the national origins of the US population, including natural-born citizens, as recorded in the 1890 census. The formula aimed to restrict immigration from non-European countries, particularly from Asia, and maintain the racial composition of the country.
Under the National Origins Formula, the number of immigrants from each country was capped at two percent of the total number of people of that nationality residing in the continental United States as per the 1890 census. This was a decrease from the previous quota of three percent based on the 1910 census. The new law completely excluded immigrants from Asia and those deemed "aliens ineligible for citizenship" due to their race or nationality.
The National Origins Formula had a significant impact on the demographic makeup of the United States. It resulted in higher quotas for Northern and Western European countries, while Southern and Eastern European countries, as well as non-European countries, faced lower quotas. The formula was enforced through a visa system, with prospective immigrants required to apply for visas at US consulates or embassies.
The National Origins Formula remained the primary means of determining immigrants' admissibility to the United States until it was replaced by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. This new act introduced a system based on immigrants' skills and family relationships with US citizens or residents, marking a shift away from the national origin quota system. However, hints of the old system can still be seen in the current immigration framework, particularly in the issuance of green cards.
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Visa requirements
The Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the National Origins Act, created quotas that made it harder for people from certain countries to obtain visas to enter the United States. This law restricted annual immigration to the United States to 358,000 people, with a cap of 2% of the total number of people of each nationality residing in the country as per the 1890 census. This formula favoured immigrants from Northern and Western European countries, while limiting those from Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.
The Immigration Act of 1924 built upon earlier legislation that had already restricted immigration from certain regions. For example, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 imposed a 10-year ban on Chinese immigration, which was later extended and made permanent until its repeal in 1943. Additionally, the Asiatic Barred Zone established in 1907 excluded people from most Asian countries, with the exception of Japan and the Philippines.
The Immigration Act of 1924 also introduced a literacy test and increased taxes for new immigrants. It gave federal agencies the authority to deny entry to individuals based on their race or nationality, excluding those who were ineligible for citizenship.
In 1952, the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) made some modifications to the quota system. It increased the quota for Southern and Eastern European countries, set a minimum quota of 100 visas for each recognised country, and removed bans on Asian immigration. However, the overall quota for immigration remained low, at 165,000 people.
It wasn't until the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that the national-origins quota system was fully abolished. This new law established a preference system based on family relationships with US citizens and permanent residents, as well as skills. It set an annual cap of 170,000 visas for the Eastern Hemisphere and 120,000 for the Western Hemisphere, with no single country in the Eastern Hemisphere receiving more than 20,000 visas.
Today, visa requirements and quotas continue to evolve. The Immigration Act of 1990 established an annual limit of 700,000 visas for quota-restricted immigrants, with exemptions for immediate relatives of US citizens and certain refugees or asylees. Visa availability is determined by worldwide and country-specific demand, with cutoff dates published monthly in the State Department Visa Bulletin.
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Exemptions
The Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the Johnson-Reed Act or the National Origins Act, created quotas that made it harder for immigrants to enter the United States. This act set quotas based on national origins, limiting the number of immigrants from each country to a certain percentage of the number of residents from that country already living in the U.S. as recorded in the 1920 census. However, there were some exemptions to these quotas.
The Immigration Act of 1924 and its subsequent modifications included several exemptions to the quota restrictions:
- Immediate relatives of U.S. citizens: Immediate relatives, including spouses, parents, and unmarried children under the age of 21, were exempt from the quota restrictions. There was no limit to the number of green cards that could be issued to immediate relatives.
- Specialized employment: Individuals with specialized employment skills or seeking education or tourism in the U.S. may have been exempt from the quotas.
- Western Hemisphere: Immigration from countries in the Western Hemisphere, including Canada, Mexico, and other neighbouring countries, remained uncapped. This exemption was made in consideration of maintaining good relations with regional neighbours.
- Japanese and Filipinos: Despite the "Asiatic Barred Zone", which excluded individuals born in certain Asian regions, Japanese and Filipino citizens were exempt due to prior agreements or colonial relationships with the U.S.
- Visa Waiver Program: Under the Visa Waiver Program, non-citizens of the U.S. who are citizens or nationals of designated countries are currently exempt from the visa requirement.
- Refugees: While the national origin quota system initially gave no exception to caps for refugees, specific legislation, such as the 1953 Refugee Relief Act, aided groups of refugees for limited periods.
- Other legislative approvals: Federal agencies had the discretion to admit immigrants who were specifically and explicitly approved by other legislation, even if country quotas had been filled.
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Literacy tests
In the late 19th century, state legislatures began employing literacy tests as part of the voter registration process, along with poll taxes, residency and property restrictions, and violent or intimidating extra-legal activities. These measures were used to disenfranchise African Americans and prevent them from voting. The first formal voter literacy tests were introduced in 1890, with whites often being exempted through alternate requirements or subjective assessments of "good moral character". Simplified literacy tests were also administered to whites, while Black citizens were asked to explain complex passages of the US Constitution.
In terms of immigration, literacy tests were proposed as early as the 1890s as a way to restrict immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe without offending "old" immigrant voters from Northern and Western Europe. Bills requiring literacy tests for immigrants reached the US president's desk several times between 1897 and 1916, but were repeatedly vetoed. In 1916, Congress overrode President Woodrow Wilson's veto, resulting in the Immigration Act of 1917, which mandated that immigrants over 16 years old demonstrate basic reading comprehension in any language.
To address the use of literacy tests in voting, Congress enacted the Voting Rights Act of 1965, prohibiting jurisdictions from administering literacy tests to citizens who had attained a sixth-grade education in an American school with a predominant language of Spanish. The Act also suspended literacy tests in jurisdictions where less than 50% of voting-age residents were registered or had voted in the 1964 presidential election. Literacy tests were banned throughout the South by the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and finally abolished nationwide in 1970 through an amendment to the Act.
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Frequently asked questions
The Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the Johnson-Reed Act, created a national origins quota system that limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States.
The Act provided immigration visas to two percent of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States as per the 1890 national census. It completely excluded immigrants from Asia.
The Act favoured England and Northern Europe, while setting much lower quotas for Southern and Eastern Europe, Africa, and Asia. This made it harder for people from these regions to obtain US immigration visas.
Yes, the national origin quota system gave no exception to the caps for refugees. This caused problems when Adolf Hitler rose to power and led to incidents such as the denial of entry to 900 Jewish refugees on the St. Louis ship in 1939.
The national origin quota system officially ended in 1965 with the Immigration and Nationality Act, also known as the Hart-Celler Act. This new law introduced a system based on immigrants' skills and family relationships with US citizens or residents.
