Cameron Miranda
Islam is India's second-largest religion, with approximately 14.2% of the country's population, or over 204 million people, identifying as adherents of Islam. The spread of Islam in India was facilitated by trade routes, military conquests, and missionary activity. Arab merchants and traders played a significant role in introducing Islam to South India, with the construction of mosques and cultural integration, including intermarriage, leading to the formation of a distinct Indian-Arabian Muslim community. The arrival of Islam in the northern inland of the Indian subcontinent occurred during the 7th century with the Arab invasion and conquest of Sindh. The Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, and various sultanates such as Bengal, Madurai, Khandesh, and Bahmani, further solidified Islamic rule and influenced the cultural, linguistic, and religious landscape of the region. Islamic law, known as Sharia, played a significant role in governance, with some rulers adopting a secular approach and others, like Aurangzeb, imposing it strictly, leading to tensions and rebellions. The legacy of Islamic rule in India is evident in the architectural marvels, languages, and religious diversity that continue to shape the country's rich heritage.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of arrival in India | As early as 630 CE |
| First introduced by | Arab Muslim merchants and traders |
| First introduced in | South India |
| First mosque built | Barwada Mosque in Ghogha, Gujarat (before 623 CE) |
| First local king to convert to Islam | In Malabar, in the early 9th century |
| Major Islamic empires in India | The Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire |
| Mughal Emperor who imposed Sharia law | Aurangzeb |
| Mughal Emperor who proclaimed a new state religion | Akbar (Din-i-ilahi) |
| Current percentage of Muslims in India | 14.2% (2011 census) |
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What You'll Learn
- Islam's arrival in India via Arab merchants and coastal trade routes in the 7th century
- The Delhi Sultanate and the enforcement of Sharia law
- The Mughal Empire and Babur's influence on Islamic governance in North India
- Destruction and conversion of Hindu temples and architecture
- The spread of Islam through jihad, holy war, and forced conversions
Islam's arrival in India via Arab merchants and coastal trade routes in the 7th century
Islam, a monotheistic religion that emphasizes the unity of God ('Allah' in Arabic) and views Muhammad as his final messenger, first emerged in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century. Following the victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the same century, the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the influence of the Muslim Caliphs. Arab merchants and traders, who were already active in the Indian Ocean trade routes, became key ambassadors of the faith, sharing its teachings wherever they went.
Islam first spread in southern Indian communities along the Arab coastal trade routes in Gujarat and the Malabar Coast. Arab merchant seamen, who had long brought goods to South India, introduced the new religion, which was warmly received in the region. South Indian communities welcomed the construction of mosques and facilitated cultural integration, including intermarriage between Arabs and local women. This led to the formation of a distinct Indian-Arabian Muslim community.
According to Historians Elliot and Dowson, the first ship bearing Muslim travellers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE, with the first Arab Muslims settling on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century CE. This is corroborated by several sources, including J. Sturrock in his Madras District Manuals and Haridas Bhattacharya in Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV. The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built in 629 CE in Kodungallur, Kerala, during the lifetime of Muhammad.
Islam arrived in the northern inland Indian subcontinent in the 7th century when the Arabs invaded and conquered Sindh. It is believed that by the early 9th century, Muslim missionaries in Malabar achieved a significant milestone when they inspired the conversion of the local king to Islam. By the 11th century, rulers in the region had begun to convert to Islam.
The trade-friendly elements of Islam, such as credit or contract law, facilitated long-distance trade. The extensive trade networks throughout North and West Africa, as well as the maritime Silk Roads connecting eastern Asian regions, created a medium through which Islam spread peacefully, initially through the merchant class.
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The Delhi Sultanate and the enforcement of Sharia law
Islam arrived in the northern inland of the Indian subcontinent in the 7th century when the Arabs invaded and conquered Sindh. Arab merchants and traders became key ambassadors of the faith, sharing its teachings wherever they travelled. The first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century CE. Islam first spread in southern Indian communities along the Arab coastal trade routes in Gujarat and in Malabar Coast shortly after the religion emerged in the Arabian Peninsula. Arab merchant seamen introduced the new religion, which was warmly received in the region. South Indian communities welcomed the construction of mosques and facilitated cultural integration, including intermarriage between Arabs and local women. This led to the formation of a distinct Indian-Arabian Muslim community.
The Delhi Sultanate was the first of the two major Islamic empires based in mainland India between 1206 and 1526. The first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate was Qutb al-Din Aibak, a former slave of Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori. Aibak was of Turkic Cuman-Kipchak origin, and due to his lineage, his dynasty is known as the Mamluk dynasty.
Sharia was used as the primary basis for the legal system in the Delhi Sultanate, most notably during the rule of Firuz Shah Tughlaq and Alauddin Khilji, who repelled the Mongol invasions of India. The Ulema, a group of Islamic scholars, played a pivotal role in instigating the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate against Hindu subjects. They interpreted Islamic laws for the Sultan and it was their duty to ensure the rule of Shariat was being applied in India. The Sultans acknowledged the authority of the Shariat, but they also added a state law called Zawabit to bring practicality in solving disputes involving the people.
The Delhi Sultanate enforced Islamic religious prohibitions on anthropomorphic representations in art. They also forced the migration of the Muslim population of Delhi, including the royal family, the nobles, Syeds, Sheikhs, and Ulema to settle in Daulatabad. The purpose of transferring the entire Muslim elite to Daulatabad was to act as propagandists who would adapt Islamic religious symbolism to the rhetoric of the empire. The Ulema asked Iltutmish as well as other Delhi Sultanate Sultans not to levy jizya on idolatrous Hindus but to give them the choice between accepting Islam and death. However, due to the majority of his subjects being Hindus, Alauddin Khilji sometimes disobeyed the Ulema and chose secular options.
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The Mughal Empire and Babur's influence on Islamic governance in North India
Islam arrived in Punjab and North India in the 12th century via the Ghaznavids and Ghurids conquest. The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526 by Babur, a Muslim chieftain from Uzbekistan, played a significant role in the spread and consolidation of Islam in South Asia. Babur, a descendant of Genghis Khan, brought with him influences from Central Asia, particularly Persia (Iran) and the Mongol Empire.
Babur's military conquests laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire, which ruled most of modern-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. The empire was characterised by its religious tolerance, with Babur allowing Hindus to practice their religion and even encouraging the construction of new Hindu temples. This policy of religious tolerance continued under subsequent Mughal rulers, who appointed Hindus to senior government and military positions.
The Mughal legal system was based on Islamic jurisprudence, or fiqh. The fundamental institutions of Islamic law, such as the qadi (judge), mufti (jurisconsult), and muhtasib (censor and market supervisor), were well-established within the empire. However, the Mughal legal system also took into account other factors such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience due to the non-Muslim majority population they governed.
The Mughal Empire made significant contributions to the architectural landscape of North India, developing a distinctive style influenced by earlier Indo-Islamic, Iranian, Central Asian, and Hindu architecture. Notable examples include the Taj Mahal and the Jama Masjid. The empire also encouraged trade with the rest of the Islamic world, particularly Persia, facilitating the spread of Muslim arts and culture in the region.
The influence of Babur and the Mughal Empire on Islamic governance in North India was significant, not only in terms of spreading and consolidating the faith but also in shaping the region's architecture, culture, and legal system. The empire's legacy can still be seen today in the form of its magnificent architectural monuments and the continued presence of Islam as a major religion in India.
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Destruction and conversion of Hindu temples and architecture
The introduction of Islam to India is a complex historical topic, with a variety of perspectives and interpretations. The arrival of Islam in India dates back to the 7th century CE, when Arab merchants and traders brought the religion to the southern Indian communities along the coastal trade routes in Gujarat and the Malabar Coast. Over time, Islam spread across the Indian subcontinent, leading to the establishment of Islamic rule and the creation of new administrative and religious frameworks.
One aspect of this historical transformation was the destruction and conversion of Hindu temples and architecture. While some sources suggest that thousands of Hindu temples were demolished and replaced with Islamic structures, other scholars argue that these claims are exaggerated and part of Islamophobic and Hindu ultra-nationalist discourse. The reality, as is often the case with historical events, is nuanced.
There is evidence that some Muslim rulers did destroy and desecrate Hindu temples. For example, the Madurai Sultanate, under Sultan Shams al-Din Adil Shah, is known for sacking and desecrating Hindu temples throughout the Tamil country. Similarly, the army of Alauddin Khalji from the Delhi Sultanate attacked the Somnath temple in 1299, and it was later ordered to be destroyed again by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1665. The Somnath temple in Gujarat is a notable example of a Hindu temple that was repeatedly destroyed by Islamic armies and then rebuilt by Hindus.
On the other hand, it is important to recognize that not all Muslim rulers engaged in the destruction of Hindu temples. For instance, Muhammad bin Qasim is said to have protected temples and reinstated local Brahmin officials. Additionally, some historians argue that the narrative of continuous Hindu persecution under Muslim rule is historically inaccurate, highlighting instances of patronage and coexistence.
The architecture of Hindu temples also underwent changes during this period. Under Muslim rule, Hindu temples incorporated Islamic influences, and ornamentation and imagery were often prohibited. For example, the Vrindavan temples, built under Akbar, are known for their lack of ornamentation. This adaptation of architectural styles further reflects the complex interplay between Hindu and Islamic cultures during the period of Islamic rule in India.
In conclusion, while there were indeed instances of destruction and conversion of Hindu temples and architecture during the Islamic rule in India, the extent and nature of these events are subject to varying interpretations. It is important to approach this topic with a critical eye, considering a range of historical perspectives and recognizing the complexities and nuances of the historical context.
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The spread of Islam through jihad, holy war, and forced conversions
Islam arrived in India through Arab merchants and traders along the coastal trade routes in Gujarat and the Malabar Coast in the southern Indian communities. Arab merchants and traders became key ambassadors of the faith, sharing its teachings wherever they travelled. Islam was first introduced to the Lakshadweep islands by Ubaidullah in 661 CE, and the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the late 7th century CE.
Islam arrived in the northern inland Indian subcontinent in the 7th century when the Arabs invaded and conquered Sindh. It arrived in Punjab and North India in the 12th century via the Ghaznavids and Ghurids conquest. The Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent mainly took place between the 13th and 18th centuries, establishing the Indo-Muslim period.
The Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent were marked by significant violence and upheaval, with instances of massacres, temple destructions, and forced conversions. Some Muslim invaders waged a systematic jihad against Hindus, using various methods to force conversions. However, it is important to note that not all rulers were zealous in their spread of Islam, and some were relatively liberal. For example, while the Madurai Sultanate "sacked and desecrated Hindu temples throughout the Tamil country", the Vijayanagara Empire resisted attempts by the Delhi Sultanate to invade South India and restore the desecrated temples for worship.
Forced conversion is the adoption of a religion or irreligion under duress. In the context of Islam, classical scholars interpreted certain verses in the Quran as a general command for expansive warfare, abrogating earlier verses. These verses state that non-believers who are not Jews or Christians ought to be given the choice of Islam or death, in effect, forcing conversion. However, in practice, when Muslims ruled over a polytheist population, forced conversion was often not feasible, and instead, these people were offered dhimmitude.
Additionally, the Sufis played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. Their orthodox approach to Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice and attracted followers from the artisan and untouchable communities, bridging the distance between Islam and indigenous traditions.
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Frequently asked questions
Historians suggest that Arab merchants and traders were key ambassadors of the faith in India. Islam was brought to the Lakshadweep islands, just west of the Malabar Coast, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE.
In a 2011 census, 14.2% of India's population identified as Muslim, or approximately 172.2 million people. India has the third-largest number of Muslims in the world.
The Indian constitution provides equal rights to all citizens, regardless of their religion. However, there are religion-specific civil codes that separately govern adherents of different religions. For example, the courts generally apply Hanafi Sunni law for Sunnis, while Shia Muslims follow their own religious laws.
Islam spread in southern Indian communities along the Arab coastal trade routes in Gujarat and the Malabar Coast. It arrived in Punjab and North India in the 12th century via the Ghaznavids and Ghurids conquest.
Islamic rule in India led to a major shift in the cultural, linguistic, and religious landscape of the subcontinent. The influence of Persian and Arabic vocabulary on local languages gave rise to modern Punjabi, Bengali, and Gujarati, as well as new languages like Urdu and Hindustani. Additionally, Islamic architecture and art are evident in iconic structures such as the Taj Mahal and Jama Masjid.
