Gavin Howe
The four laws of thermodynamics are a set of scientific laws that define a group of physical quantities, such as temperature, energy, and entropy, that characterize thermodynamic systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. The history of thermodynamics is fundamentally interwoven with the history of physics and chemistry, dating back to theories of heat in antiquity. The laws of thermodynamics are the result of progress made in this field over the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The first law of thermodynamics, a version of the law of conservation of energy, was first explicitly stated by Rudolf Clausius in 1850, though earlier statements were made by Germain Hess in 1840 and Julius Robert von Mayer in 1842. The first established thermodynamic principle, which became the second law, was formulated by Sadi Carnot in 1824. By 1860, the first and second laws were formalized by scientists including Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson. The third law, also known as Nernst's theorem, was formulated by Walther Nernst between 1906 and 1912. Finally, the zeroth law of thermodynamics was dubbed by Ralph Fowler in the 1930s.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First Law of Thermodynamics | Formulated by Rudolf Clausius in 1850 |
| Second Law of Thermodynamics | First established by Sadi Carnot in 1824 |
| Third Law of Thermodynamics | Formulated by Walther Nernst between 1906 and 1912 |
| Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics | Named by Ralph Fowler in the 1930s |
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What You'll Learn
The first law of thermodynamics
For example, consider a car slowing down due to the driver pressing the brakes. In this scenario, kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion, is converted into heat energy as the car comes to a stop. This illustrates the principle that energy can be transformed from one form to another, in accordance with the first law of thermodynamics.
In summary, the first law of thermodynamics is a fundamental principle in thermodynamics that establishes the conservation of energy in closed systems and introduces the concept of internal energy. It provides a framework for understanding energy transfer and transformation, laying the groundwork for further exploration and laws in the field of thermodynamics.
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Energy conservation
The four laws of thermodynamics are the result of progress made in the field over the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but only change form. In other words, the total energy of an isolated system remains constant, even if energy is converted from one form to another. This is because energy is indestructible, and any gain or loss in energy by the system will correspond to a loss or gain in energy by its surroundings.
The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium. In other words, entropy either stays the same or gets bigger, but never decreases. This is because any isolated system spontaneously evolves towards thermal equilibrium, which is the state of maximum entropy.
The third law of thermodynamics states that a system's entropy approaches a constant minimum as the temperature approaches absolute zero. This means that at absolute zero, a system will have almost zero entropy.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics was dubbed as such because it was only added after the first three laws had already been established. It states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they must also be in equilibrium with each other. This means that if two objects are at the same temperature and they are in thermal equilibrium with another object, then this third object is also at the same temperature as the other two objects.
The first law of thermodynamics is particularly significant in the context of energy conservation. This is because it establishes the principle that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one form to another. This has important implications for energy conservation, as it means that energy must be carefully managed and used efficiently, rather than simply created anew.
The second law is also relevant to energy conservation, as it highlights the tendency for entropy to increase in isolated systems. This has implications for energy efficiency, as it suggests that energy will naturally tend towards a more disordered state, which may be less efficient. Therefore, energy conservation efforts must work against this natural tendency for energy to become more disordered over time.
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The second law of thermodynamics
The second law states that there exists a useful state variable called entropy. The change in entropy (delta S, ΔS) is equal to the heat transfer (delta Q, ΔQ) divided by the temperature (T). For a given physical process, the entropy of the system and the environment will remain constant if the process can be reversed. An example of a reversible process is ideally forcing a flow through a constricted pipe. As the flow moves through the constriction, the pressure, temperature, and velocity would change, but these variables would return to their original values downstream of the constriction. The state of the gas would return to its original conditions and the change in entropy of the system would be zero.
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Entropy
The four laws of thermodynamics are a set of scientific principles that define a group of physical quantities, such as temperature, energy, and entropy, that characterise thermodynamic systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. The laws also use various parameters for thermodynamic processes, such as thermodynamic work and heat, and establish relationships between them.
The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, adapted for thermodynamic processes. In general, the conservation law states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another but cannot be created or destroyed. In a closed system, the first law states that the change in internal energy of the system is equal to the difference between the heat supplied to the system and the work done by the system on its surroundings.
The second law of thermodynamics, formulated by Sadi Carnot in 1824, states that in a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of the interacting thermodynamic systems never decreases. This means that the state of entropy of the entire universe, as an isolated system, will always increase over time. A common corollary of this statement is that heat does not spontaneously pass from a colder body to a warmer body.
The third law of thermodynamics, also known as Nernst's theorem or Nernst's postulate, was formulated by Walther Nernst between 1906 and 1912. It states that a system's entropy approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero. Typically, the entropy of a system at absolute zero is close to zero, except in the case of non-crystalline solids (glasses).
The zeroth law of thermodynamics, named by Ralph H. Fowler in the 1930s, provides the foundation for defining temperature in a non-circular way without direct reference to entropy. It states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they must also be in equilibrium with each other. This allows for a self-consistent definition of temperature as an empirical parameter in thermodynamic systems.
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History of thermodynamics
The history of thermodynamics is deeply intertwined with the history of physics, chemistry, and science. The field has progressed over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with roots in ancient theories of heat.
The ancient Egyptians, as early as 3000 BC, associated heat with origin mythologies. Ancient thinkers such as Leucippus, Democritus, and the Epicureans laid the foundations for atomic theory, which is central to the relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. The idea that heat is a form of motion was discussed by English philosopher and scientist Francis Bacon in 1620 in his Novum Organum.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, European scientists Cornelius Drebbel, Robert Fludd, Galileo Galilei, and Santorio Santorio were able to gauge the relative "hotness" or "coldness" of air using a rudimentary air thermometer or thermoscope. The development of early steam engines, though crude and inefficient, attracted the attention of leading scientists.
Sadi Carnot, often regarded as the "father of thermodynamics", published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire in 1824, marking the starting point of thermodynamics as a modern science. This work introduced the first modern-day definition of "work" and explored heat, power, and engine efficiency. By 1860, the first and second laws of thermodynamics were formalized by scientists such as Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson.
James Prescott Joule's quantitative studies from 1843 onwards provided reproducible phenomena and solidified the understanding of thermodynamics. In 1845, Joule conducted his famous experiment, using a falling weight to spin a paddle wheel in a barrel of water, leading to the theory of conservation of energy and explaining the ability of heat to do work.
In 1854, William John Macquorn Rankine introduced the concept of thermodynamic function in his calculations, which was later shown to be identical to Rudolf Clausius's formulation of entropy. Clausius coined the term "entropy" in 1865 to denote heat lost or turned into waste, and he used this concept to develop his classic statement of the second law of thermodynamics.
Later, Nernst's theorem, now known as the third law, was formulated by Walther Nernst between 1906 and 1912. Ralph Fowler dubbed the zeroth law of thermodynamics in the 1930s to describe thermal equilibrium between bodies, serving as the foundation for the other three laws.
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