Cameron Miranda
Apartheid was a policy of racial segregation implemented in South Africa in the 20th century. The term 'apartheid' is derived from an Afrikaans word meaning 'apartness'. Apartheid was formally established in 1948 by the National Party, which won the elections that year. The policy was based on a series of laws that made racial segregation legal and institutionalised. Apartheid called for the separate development of different racial groups in South Africa, which resulted in the grossly unequal treatment of the majority of the population. The laws segregated South Africans in daily activities, such as the use of public transport, recreation, and dining, and also in political and economic life. Apartheid was enforced through brutal state repression, and it lasted until the early 1990s when it was abolished due to mounting internal and external pressures.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of creation | 1948 |
| Location | South Africa |
| Political party responsible | National Party (NP) |
| People involved | Hendrik Verwoerd |
| Aim | Separate development of different racial groups |
| Type of separation | Physical, political, and daily activities |
| Basis of separation | Race and ethnicity |
| Methods | Land Acts, pass laws, racial classification, separate amenities, banning of interracial relations and marriages, restricting movement, etc. |
| Impact | Severe disadvantage for the majority of the population, human rights violations, economic and political discrimination, etc. |
| Opposition | Anti-apartheid leaders, trade unions, United Democratic Front (UDF), African National Congress (ANC), international sanctions |
| Repeal | Largely repealed in the early 1990s |
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What You'll Learn
The National Party's role in apartheid
Apartheid was a policy in 20th-century South Africa that governed relations between the white minority and the non-white majority. It was formally established in 1948 and sanctioned racial segregation and political and economic discrimination against non-whites.
The National Party (NP), also known as the Nationalist Party, was a political party in South Africa from 1914 to 1997. It was responsible for implementing apartheid rule. The party was an Afrikaner ethnic nationalist party that promoted the interests of Afrikaners and later became a staunch advocate and enforcer of white supremacy.
In 1948, after the National Party won the elections, apartheid became a social project of the government based on a series of laws that made it legal. Citizens were classified into one of four racial groups: black, Indian, coloured (non-white), and white. Locations were also classified according to race, with people of colour prohibited from certain places such as beaches and public toilets. Millions of black citizens were forcibly removed from their homes and confined within ethnic tribal homelands, while whites occupied towns and cities.
Under the leadership of Verwoerd, a former Minister of Native Affairs, the NP solidified its control over South African apartheid-era politics. Verwoerd played a leading role in the institution of the apartheid system. To gain support from English-speaking South Africans, he appointed several English speakers to his cabinet. Verwoerd also framed the NP as the party best suited to address the perceived threat of communism.
Apartheid legislation was largely repealed in the early 1990s, and in February 1990, F. W. de Klerk announced the decision to release Mandela from prison and end the ban on the anti-apartheid African National Congress (ANC) and other movements. The NP opened its membership to all racial groups in 1990, rebranding itself as a civic nationalist and conservative party representing all South Africans.
In 1992, the NP government held a referendum for the white population, asking if they supported ending apartheid and establishing elections open to all South Africans. The majority voted in favour, and in 1994, South Africa transitioned to a constitutional democracy based on non-racialism.
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Hendrik Verwoerd, the 'Architect of Apartheid'
Apartheid was a policy in South Africa that governed relations between the white minority and non-white majority during the 20th century. It was formally established in 1948 and sanctioned racial segregation and political and economic discrimination against non-whites.
Hendrik Verwoerd, the so-called "Architect of Apartheid", was a Dutch-born South African politician, scholar, and newspaper editor. He played a significant role in socially engineering apartheid and implementing its policies, first as Minister of Native Affairs (1950–1958) and then as Prime Minister (1958–1966).
Verwoerd was a key figure in helping the far-right National Party come to power in 1948, serving as their political strategist and propagandist. As editor of Die Transvaler, he took an anti-British stance that was also accused of being pro-Nazi. In government, he started work on implementing harsher apartheid laws, transforming land set aside for various Black communities into autonomous states known as Bantustans. He also put limitations on the curriculum taught to Black people, reducing their education to basic literacy and numeracy.
Verwoerd once described apartheid as a "policy of good neighbourliness", stating that different races and cultures could only reach their full potential if they lived and developed apart. He justified apartheid to international audiences by arguing that the white minority needed protection from the non-white majority, and that power needed to remain in the hands of whites. To this end, he pursued a "policy of separate development", which saw the complete disfranchisement of the non-white population.
During his premiership, Verwoerd ruthlessly cracked down on opposition to apartheid, ordering the detention and imprisonment of tens of thousands of people and the exile of thousands more. He also played a role in the 1960 Sharpeville Massacre, in which 69 Black protestors were shot and killed by police. Verwoerd used the incident to argue for South Africa to become a republic, stating that since most of the world condemned the country's policies, it made sense for South Africa to take full control of its future.
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Apartheid's legal enforcement
Apartheid was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1948 until the early 1990s. Apartheid was conceptualised in the 20th century and was based on racial segregation, aiming to separate the white minority population from the Black majority population.
The legal enforcement of apartheid was characterised by an authoritarian political culture based on baasskap, or 'boss-hood', which ensured that South Africa was dominated politically, socially, and economically by the nation's minority white population. Under this system, white citizens held the highest status, followed by Indians, "Coloureds", and Black Africans. The population was classified into these four distinct racial groups, with locations also classified according to race. This meant that there were places where people of colour were not allowed, such as beaches or public toilets.
Apartheid legislation included the prohibition of mixed marriages, the banning of specific racial or ethnic groups from accessing certain meetings and unions, and the restriction of movement. The Natives Urban Areas Act of 1923 and restrictive 'pass laws' separated family members from one another, with men able to prove their employment in urban centres, while most women were deemed dependents and risked deportation to rural areas. The Bantu Education Act of 1953 provided for the creation of state-run schools that Black children were required to attend, with the goal of training them for manual labour and menial jobs. The Extension of University Education Act of 1959 largely prohibited established universities from accepting non-white students.
The South African government, led by P.W. Botha in the 1980s, became increasingly preoccupied with security and set up a powerful state security apparatus to "protect" the state against anticipated political violence triggered by reforms. This period saw considerable political unrest, with the government dominated by Botha's circle of generals and police chiefs, who enforced strict security legislation, resulting in hundreds of arrests. The government also responded to the anti-apartheid movement with armed repression, abducting and killing activists.
The apartheid system in South Africa was ultimately abolished in the 1990s due to mounting internal and external pressures, leading to the establishment of a constitutional democracy based on non-racialism in 1994.
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The anti-apartheid movement
Apartheid was a policy in 20th-century South Africa that legalised racial segregation and political and economic discrimination against non-whites. Apartheid legislation was largely repealed in the early 1990s, following years of anti-apartheid activism.
The AAM's work included spearheading the arrangements for the International Conference for Economic Sanctions Against South Africa in 1964. This conference established the necessity, legality, and practicability of internationally organised sanctions against South Africa. The AAM also initiated an academic boycott of South Africa in 1965, with 496 university professors and lecturers from 34 British universities signing a declaration protesting against apartheid and associated violations of academic freedom.
In the 1980s, the international campaign to free Nelson Mandela from prison gained momentum, with the British AAM personalising the liberation struggle with Mandela as its symbolic figurehead. The AAM worked with a range of organisations in Britain, including the International Defence and Aid Fund, local council authorities, churches, and trade unions, to demand Mandela's release and an end to apartheid.
The anti-apartheid forces employed a variety of strategic actions, including nonviolent civil resistance, strikes, economic boycotts, and the establishment of alternative institutions. They also engaged in inter-racial bridge-building and social disobedience, such as renaming public facilities and parks after movement heroes like Nelson Mandela and Steve Biko.
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Apartheid's legacy
Apartheid was a system of legalized racial segregation in South Africa that aimed to separate the white minority from the non-white majority. It was formally established in 1948 and lasted until the early 1990s, when it was met with significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the 20th century.
During the apartheid era, the South African government passed laws and regulations that segregated South Africans in their daily lives, such as those that dictated which transportation, recreation, or dining options one could utilize based on race. Apartheid also enforced the physical separation of racial groups, with more than 80% of South Africa's land set aside for the white minority. The government also strengthened existing "pass" laws, requiring non-whites to carry documents authorizing their presence in restricted areas.
The legacy of apartheid in South Africa is still felt today, with the country still considered one of the most unequal in the world. Economic inequality is a significant issue, with 80% of the country's wealth held by 10% of the population, and the Black population disproportionately represented in the poorest category. This disparity is attributed to the legacy of apartheid, which created material differences between communities and reinforced racial segregation.
The education system in South Africa continues to feel the impact of apartheid. During that era, separate educational standards were established, with Black children required to attend state-run schools that prepared them for manual labour and menial jobs. Universities were also segregated, with most prohibiting the acceptance of non-white students. Today, funding for schools in predominantly Black and low-income areas has been cut, exacerbating existing inequalities.
Racial classifications during apartheid encouraged the idea that different racial groups needed to compete for basic human rights, dignity, and economic opportunities. This has resulted in a cycle of inequality that continues to impact South African society, with privileged groups needing to broaden access to opportunities for all races.
The spatial divide in South Africa continues to mirror the economic one, with segregated communities and unequal access to resources. The government's adoption of austerity measures has been criticized for perpetuating the same inequalities that apartheid upheld, impacting the rights to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities for all.
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Frequently asked questions
Apartheid was created by the National Party (NP) government in South Africa. It was formally established in 1948 and was based on racial segregation.
Apartheid aimed to separate the white minority from the non-white majority in South Africa. This involved creating different areas for people of different races to live, and preventing social integration between racial groups.
Apartheid was enforced through a series of laws and regulations. The Population Registration Act of 1950, for example, introduced identity cards for all people over the age of 18, specifying their racial group. The Group Areas Act of 1950 also contributed to the physical separation between races, particularly in urban areas.
