Gavin Howe
Mesopotamia is known for its first written codified laws, which reveal the level of social, political, economic, and legal development of the Mesopotamian civilization. The Code of Ur-Nammu, created by Ur-Nammu of Ur in the 21st century BC, is the oldest known code of law, written in Sumerian on clay tablets. The Code of Hammurabi, written in the 18th century BC, is another well-known example of an ancient Mesopotamian law code. It was purportedly created by Hammurabi, the sixth king of Babylon, and is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian.
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What You'll Learn
The Code of Ur-Nammu
The prologue of the code invokes the deities Nanna and Utu and decrees "equity in the land". Ur-Nammu is described as a mighty warrior who banished malediction, violence, and strife. He also standardised weights and measures and ensured that orphans and widows were protected.
The code includes specific provisions such as fines for divorce, accusations of sorcery, and adultery. For example, if a man accused another man's wife of adultery, and she was proven innocent, the accuser had to pay one-third of a mina of silver. The code also addressed issues of social justice, such as ensuring that people of different social classes were not "delivered up" to the rich or mighty.
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The oldest known surviving law code
The Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest known surviving law code from Mesopotamia. It was written in the Sumerian language on clay tablets c. 2100-2050 BC. The code is arranged in a casuistic form, with a crime followed by its punishment, a pattern that was followed in nearly all later codes. The laws also provide a glimpse into the societal structure of Ur's Third Dynasty. The prologue, typical of Mesopotamian law codes, invokes the deities for Ur-Nammu's kingship, Nanna and Utu, and decrees "equity in the land".
The code was discovered in Nippur, in modern-day Iraq, and was translated by Samuel Noah Kramer in 1952. The fragments are now held at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums. However, due to partial preservation, only the long prologue and five of the laws could be discerned. Two further tablet fragments, now held at the Iraq Museum in Baghdad, were found in Ur and translated in 1965, allowing for the reconstruction of 30 out of 57 laws.
The Code of Ur-Nammu includes laws related to divorce, sorcery, adultery, and compensation for bodily damage. For instance, if a man divorces his first-time wife, he must pay her one mina of silver. If he divorces a former widow, he must pay half a mina of silver. If a man accuses another man's wife of adultery, and the river ordeal proves her innocent, the accuser must pay one-third of a mina of silver.
While the Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest known surviving law code, it is important to note that there were likely earlier collections of laws in Mesopotamia. These earlier collections, written in Sumerian and Akkadian, were purportedly authored by rulers. One of the earliest known lawgivers was Urukagna, who ruled the Sumerian city-state of Lagash in the 24th century BC, although the actual text of his laws has never been discovered.
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The structure of Ur's Third Dynasty
The Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest known surviving law code from Mesopotamia, written in the Sumerian language on clay tablets around 2100–2050 BC. It was created by Ur-Nammu, the founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur, also known as Ur III.
The Third Dynasty of Ur was a Sumerian dynasty based in the city of Ur during the 22nd and 21st centuries BC. It was the last Sumerian dynasty to hold power in Mesopotamia and controlled cities such as Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, and Upper Mesopotamia. The dynasty's realm is sometimes referred to as the Neo-Sumerian Empire.
The Code of Ur-Nammu provides insight into the societal structure of the Third Dynasty of Ur. The society was divided into two basic strata: the "lu" or free person, and the slave ("arad" for males and "geme" for females). A son of a "lu" was called a "dumu-nita" until he married and became a "gurus" (young man). A woman ("munus") progressed from being a daughter ("dumu-mi") to a wife ("dam"), and if she outlived her husband, she became a widow ("nu-ma-su") who could remarry.
The king or "lugal" ("great man") stood at the top of the social hierarchy. The prologue of the code invokes the deities Nanna and Utu for Ur-Nammu's kingship and decrees "equity in the land". The code follows a casuistic form, with crimes followed by their respective punishments, a pattern that influenced subsequent legal codes.
The Third Dynasty of Ur reached its territorial peak by expanding into southeastern Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and the Iranian shore of the Persian Gulf. Their campaigns, particularly those led by Shulgi, brought significant treasures back to the kingdom. However, they faced conflicts with the highland tribes of the Zagros mountain area and the Elamites, who ultimately rebelled and overthrew the dynasty.
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The Code of Hammurabi
The primary copy of the Code of Hammurabi is inscribed on a basalt stele that is 2.25 metres (7 feet 4+1⁄2 inches) tall. The stele was rediscovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran, where it had been taken as plunder six hundred years after its creation. The stele now resides in the Louvre Museum. The top of the stele features a relief image of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text, with one-fifth containing a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, and the remaining four-fifths containing the laws.
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The first Mesopotamian law collection to be discovered
The Code of Hammurabi, purportedly written by Hammurabi, the sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon, was the first Mesopotamian law collection to be discovered. It was rediscovered in 1901 at Susa, in present-day Iran, where it had been taken as plunder six hundred years after its creation. The Code of Hammurabi was thought to be the earliest Mesopotamian law collection when it was rediscovered in 1902. However, it was soon discovered that it was not the first written, as several earlier collections have been found.
The Code of Hammurabi is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian and is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. It is inscribed on a basalt stele 2.25 m (7 ft 4+1⁄2 in) tall. The stele now resides in the Louvre Museum. The top of the stele features an image in relief of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text: one-fifth contains a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, while the remaining four-fifths contain what are generally referred to as the laws.
The Code of Hammurabi is based on the principle of ""an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" (lex talionis). It contains 282 judgements of civil and criminal law, with penalties varying from crime to crime and the social status of the offender. Even slaves had some rights. The laws are arranged in a casuistic form, with a crime followed by its punishment, a pattern followed in nearly all later codes.
The Code of Hammurabi also provides a glimpse into the societal structure during its time. Beneath the "great man" or king, all members of society belonged to one of two basic strata: the "lu" or free person, or the slave (male: "arad", female: "geme"). A man's son was called a "dumu-nita" until he married and became a "young man" or "gurus". A woman, on the other hand, went from being a "dumu-mi" or daughter to a "dam" or wife, and if she outlived her husband, she became a "nu-ma-su" or widow, who could remarry.
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Frequently asked questions
The oldest known surviving law code from Mesopotamia is the Code of Ur-Nammu, created by Ur-Nammu of Ur in the 21st century BC.
The Code of Ur-Nammu was written in the Sumerian language on clay tablets.
The code is arranged in a casuistic form of IF (crime) THEN (punishment). It includes laws on divorce, adultery, and sorcery.
While the Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest surviving law code, the oldest example of a legal code is attributed to Urukagna, who ruled the Sumerian city-state of Lagash in the 24th century BC. However, the text has never been discovered.
