Gavin Howe
The Emergency Quota Act of 1921, also known as the Emergency Quota Law, established the first numerical limits on the number of immigrants who could enter the United States. This bill was passed in anticipation of post-war reconstruction and due to anti-immigrant and nativist sentiment stemming from World War I. The Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the National Origins Act, further restricted immigration by making the quotas stricter and permanent. These quotas were based on the ratio of different ethnic groups in America in 1890 and were specifically designed to preserve the racial composition of the country and maintain America's character as a nation of northern and western European stock.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Year | 1921 |
| Name | Emergency Quota Act |
| Purpose | To restrict immigration to the United States |
| Quota | 3% of the number of foreign-born persons of that nationality residing in the U.S. in the 1910 census |
| Implementation | A visa system was implemented in 1924 |
| Revision | The Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the National Origins Act, made the quotas stricter and permanent |
| Impact | Reduced total emigration from 357,803 between 1923 and 1924 to 164,667 between 1924 and 1925 |
| Further Revision | The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 |
| Replacement | The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 |
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What You'll Learn
The Emergency Quota Act of 1921
The Act mandated that non-citizens seeking to enter the US obtain and present a visa obtained from a US embassy or consulate before their arrival. It also imposed strict quantitative caps on immigration, limiting the number of aliens of any nationality allowed entry under immigration laws to 3% of the number of foreign-born persons of that nationality residing in the US as per the 1910 census. This meant that for European countries, 55% of quota allotments went to Northern and Western Europe, effectively reducing immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe. The Act also continued the exclusion of China and extended it to other East Asian countries.
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Immigration Act of 1924
The Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the Johnson-Reed Act, was a United States federal law that imposed strict limits on immigration from Asia and set quotas on the number of immigrants from every country outside Latin America. The Act was signed into law on May 24, 1924, and was driven by growing concerns about the country's rapidly changing social and demographic landscape.
The 1924 Act built upon earlier restrictive immigration policies, such as the literacy tests and increased taxes for new immigrants implemented in 1917, as well as the temporary Emergency Quota Law of 1921, which limited immigration to 3% of the foreign-born population recorded in the 1910 census. The Immigration Act of 1924 made these restrictions permanent and further reduced the quota to 2% based on the 1890 national census. This change favoured immigrants from countries with historical ties to the United States, such as Britain and Western Europe, while severely limiting immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.
The Act completely excluded immigrants from Asia, violating the Gentlemen's Agreement with Japan and increasing tensions between the two nations. It also established a visa system, requiring non-citizens to obtain a visa from a US embassy or consulate before entering the country. Additionally, it authorized the creation of the U.S. Border Patrol and established classes of admission for non-immigrants, such as temporary visitors.
The primary purpose of the Immigration Act of 1924 was to preserve the ideal of US homogeneity and maintain the country's racial composition. This goal was influenced by eugenics research and popular anti-immigrant sentiment stemming from World War I. The Act was successful in drastically reducing immigration, with an 80% reduction in the yearly average compared to pre-1914 levels.
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Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 upheld the national origins quota system established by the Immigration Act of 1924, reinforcing this controversial system of immigrant selection. The 1952 Act revised the 1924 quotas to allow national quotas at a rate of one-sixth of one percent of each nationality's population in the United States as of the 1920 census. This resulted in 85% of the 154,277 visas available annually going to individuals of Northern and Western European lineage.
The 1952 Act continued the practice of excluding countries in the Western Hemisphere from the quota system, but it did introduce new length-of-residency requirements for quota-free entry. It also ended the exclusion of Asian immigrants, allotting each Asian nation a minimum of 100 visas per year, though this was based on race rather than nationality. This was a symbolic opportunity for Asian immigration, but it continued to discriminate against them. The Act also eliminated laws that prevented Asians from becoming naturalized American citizens.
The 1952 Act also created a system of preferences, which helped American consuls abroad to prioritize visa applicants in countries with heavily oversubscribed quotas. This system gave precedence to individuals with special skills or families already in the United States, and it is still in use today. The Act also gave non-quota status to the alien husbands of American citizens (wives had already been entering outside the quota system for several years). A labour certification system was also introduced, designed to prevent new immigrants from becoming unwanted competition for American workers.
The 1952 Act was passed over President Harry Truman's veto. Truman, who opposed national origin quotas, believed the new law was discriminatory. He appointed a commission to review the nation's immigration policy, and this commission criticized the quotas for perpetuating racial and national discrimination.
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Immigration Act of 1965
The Immigration Act of 1965, also known as the Hart-Celler Act, was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 3, 1965. The act amended the McCarran-Walter Act of 1952, which itself had upheld the national origins quota system established by the Immigration Act of 1924.
The 1965 act abolished the national origins quota system, which had been in place for over four decades and favoured immigrants from northern and western Europe, while discriminating against those from southern and eastern Europe and barring those from Asia and non-white countries. The new law emphasised visas for family and employment categories, with a preference system that gave priority to immigrants' skills and family relations with US citizens or residents.
The push for immigration reform came from President Kennedy, whose Irish ancestors had faced prejudice. After Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson turned to Kennedy's brother, Ted, to help steer the bill through Congress. The bill was introduced in the Senate multiple times between March 14, 1960, and August 19, 1965, and received strong opposition, mostly from southern conservatives. However, it also garnered wide support from both northern Democrats and Republicans in Congress.
The 1965 act was based on a report produced by the Commission on Immigration and Naturalization in 1953, which criticised the national origins quota system for perpetuating racial and national discrimination. The report recommended replacing the quota system with higher limits and priority status based on granting asylum, family reunification, and meeting labour needs. While Congress did not act on these recommendations at the time, the 1965 act did away with the discriminatory quota system, opening the doors to immigrants from all over the globe and significantly altering the demographic mix in the country.
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Anti-immigrant sentiment post-World War I
The years preceding World War I were one of the biggest periods of immigration in American history, with an average of 1 million immigrants per year. However, the war brought about a significant shift in the United States' immigration landscape, with anti-immigrant sentiment gaining traction. Here are some key aspects of the anti-immigrant sentiment post-World War I:
Discrimination and Violence against German Americans: When the US entered World War I in 1917, anti-German sentiment intensified across the nation. German Americans were perceived as a security threat, with suspicions that they remained loyal to the German Emperor. They were labelled "hyphenated Americans," accused of practising their traditions instead of assimilating into Anglo-American culture. German Americans were branded as "the Huns," invoking a stereotype of barbaric raiders who spoke an incomprehensible language. This sentiment led to discrimination and, in some cases, violence. German-American businesses and homes were vandalised, and individuals accused of being pro-German were subjected to tar-and-feather attacks, with at least one recorded instance of lynching. German-language newspapers were forced to shut down, and German-language schools were banned. Some German Americans even changed their names and concealed their heritage to blend into mainstream America.
The Emergence of Nativist Sentiment: The aftermath of World War I witnessed a surge in nativism, with popular sentiment favouring the preservation of Anglo-American culture and a backlash against foreign influences. This nativist sentiment influenced the immigration policies enacted during this period.
The Impact on Immigration Policies: The anti-immigrant sentiment post-World War I had a direct impact on the creation and implementation of restrictive immigration laws. The Emergency Quota Law of 1921, also known as the Emergency Quota Act, was influenced by nativist and anti-immigrant sentiments stemming from the war. It imposed quotas based on immigrants' countries of birth, with annual quotas calculated at 3% of the foreign-born population from each country recorded in the 1910 census. This marked a significant departure from the pre-war "open-door" immigration policy. The Immigration Act of 1924 further restricted immigration by limiting the number of immigrants through a national origins quota, providing visas to only 2% of each nationality in the US as per the 1890 census. This act completely excluded Asians, violating prior agreements and straining relations with countries like Japan.
The Literacy Test and Increased Immigration Costs: In 1917, the US Congress passed the first widely restrictive immigration law, introducing a literacy test for immigrants over 16 years old. It also increased the tax paid by new immigrants and granted immigration officials greater discretion in making exclusion decisions. These provisions set the stage for the more comprehensive restrictions that followed in the 1920s.
The anti-immigrant sentiment post-World War I had a profound impact on US immigration policy, leading to the establishment of quota systems, exclusionary measures, and stricter enforcement. These sentiments reflected a desire to preserve an ideal of US homogeneity and protect against perceived external threats in the aftermath of a devastating global conflict.
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Frequently asked questions
The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 was passed by the U.S. Congress.
The Act established numerical limits on the number of immigrants who could enter the United States. It was influenced by anti-immigrant and nativist sentiment stemming from World War I.
The Immigration Act of 1924, also known as the Johnson-Reed Act, was passed by the U.S. Congress. It made the quotas stricter and permanent.
The Act significantly reduced immigration from countries outside the Western Hemisphere, completely excluding immigrants from Asia. It also established the U.S. Border Patrol and a visa system for non-citizens seeking to enter the U.S.
