Cecily Zamora
Isaac Newton is credited with formulating the first law of gravitation, also known as Newton's law of universal gravitation. Newton's law states that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres of mass. The law was first published in 1687 and was inspired by Newton's observation of an apple falling from a tree, leading to his realisation that the gravitational force could extend from the ground to a tree and even to the Sun.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Name of Scientist | Isaac Newton |
| First Law of Gravitation | Every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers of mass |
| Date of Formulation | First published on 5 July 1687 |
| Source of Inspiration | An apple falling from a tree |
| Publication | Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Latin for 'Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy' (the Principia)) |
| Similar Theories | Brahmagupta, Bhāskara II, Aristotle, Vitruvius, John Philoponus, Jean Buridan, Albert of Saxony, Galileo Galilei, Albert Einstein |
| Experiments | The Cavendish Experiment by British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798 |
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What You'll Learn
Isaac Newton's discovery
Newton's law of universal gravitation was formulated in his work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (Latin for "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published on 5 July 1687. The publication of this law became known as the "first great unification" as it unified the previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with known astronomical behaviours. This work was the culmination of more than 20 years of thinking and outlined his theory of calculus, the three laws of motion, and the first rigorous account of his theory of universal gravitation.
Newton's discovery was influenced by the work of astronomers and scientists before him. By the 17th century, German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler had worked out the geometry of the movements of the stars and planets. By looking at the movement of Mars, Kepler calculated that planets orbited the sun in elliptical paths. In 1666, Newton developed the idea that Kepler's laws applied to the orbit of the Moon around the Earth and then to all objects on Earth. He also believed that the gravitation force acted as if all of the Earth's mass was concentrated at its centre, a conjecture that was unproven at the time.
Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces, where force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Newton's law was later superseded by Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity in the early 20th century. However, the universality of the gravitational constant remains intact, and Newton's law is still used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity in most applications.
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The apple story
The story of an apple falling from a tree and landing on Isaac Newton's head is a famous one, but it is just one part of the story of how Newton formulated the first law of gravitation. Newton himself recounted the tale to several people during his lifetime, and it has since been passed down through the ages. However, some historians suspect that Newton may have deliberately fabricated the story to strengthen his claim.
Newton's law of universal gravitation describes gravity as a force that attracts every particle to every other particle in the universe. The force is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres of mass. This law was a significant development in the understanding of gravity, as it provided a mathematical formula to calculate the force of gravitation between two objects.
However, it is important to note that Newton's law of gravitation was not immediately accepted. Some scientists, like Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, criticised the concept of ""action at a distance",, arguing that the mechanism of gravity was invisible and intangible. Despite these objections, Newton's law of gravitation gained widespread acceptance and answered long-standing questions about nature.
Furthermore, Newton's work built upon the theories of ancient Greek philosophers and scientists from the Middle Ages, including Indian, Islamic, and European scholars. For example, in the 7th century, Indian astronomer Brahmagupta described gravity as an attractive force, and in the 14th century, European philosophers Jean Buridan and Albert of Saxony developed the theory of impetus, linking it to the acceleration and mass of objects. These advancements in gravitational theory paved the way for Newton's groundbreaking work.
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The law's formulation
Isaac Newton formulated the first law of gravitation, also known as Newton's law of universal gravitation. Newton's law of universal gravitation was first published on July 5, 1687, in Newton's work 'Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica' (Latin for 'Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy').
According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, every particle or object with matter in the universe attracts every other particle or object with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers of mass. This law is derived from empirical observations and what Newton called inductive reasoning. It is a part of classical mechanics.
Newton's formulation of the law of gravitation was inspired by an apple falling from a tree in his mother's garden. Newton observed that the apple was attracted to the ground when its acceleration increased from zero when it was still hanging on the tree. He realized that the apple would fall to the ground even when it was at the tallest point, suspecting some force in action. This led him to make a connection between falling bodies and astronomical motions, realizing that if the gravitational force could extend from the ground to a tree, it might also reach the Sun.
The first test of Newton's law of gravitation was conducted by British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, known as the Cavendish experiment. This experiment accurately determined the gravitational constant G, which is essential for understanding the strength of the gravitational force, one of the four fundamental forces in nature.
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The Cavendish experiment
The apparatus consisted of a torsion balance made of a six-foot (1.8 m) wooden rod horizontally suspended from a wire, with two 2-inch-diameter (51 mm), 1.61-pound (0.73 kg) lead spheres, one attached to each end. Two massive 12-inch (300 mm), 348-pound (158 kg) lead balls, suspended separately, could be positioned away from or to either side of the smaller balls, 8.85 inches (225 mm) away. The experiment measured the faint gravitational attraction between the small and large balls, which deflected the torsion balance rod by about 0.16" (or only 0.03" with a stiffer suspending wire). The two large balls could be positioned either away from or to either side of the torsion balance rod. Their mutual attraction to the small balls caused the arm to rotate, twisting the suspension wire.
Cavendish then carried out a series of measurements with the equipment. By measuring the angle of the rod and knowing the twisting force (torque) of the wire for a given angle, Cavendish was able to determine the force between the pairs of masses. Since the gravitational force of the Earth on the small ball could be measured directly by weighing it, the ratio of the two forces allowed the relative density of the Earth to be calculated, using Newton's law of gravitation. Cavendish found that the Earth's density was 5.448±0.033 times that of water (although due to a simple arithmetic error, an erroneous value of 5.480±0.038 appears in his paper). The current accepted value is 5.514 g/cm3.
Cavendish's result provided additional evidence for a planetary core made of metal, an idea first proposed by Charles Hutton based on his analysis of the 1774 Schiehallion experiment. Cavendish's result of 5.4 g·cm−3, 23% bigger than Hutton's, is close to 80% of the density of liquid iron, and 80% higher than the density of the Earth's outer crust, suggesting the existence of a dense iron core. The formulation of Newtonian gravity in terms of a gravitational constant did not become standard until long after Cavendish's time.
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Other theories of gravitation
The study of gravitation has a long history, with the first extant sources discussing such theories found in ancient Greek philosophy. Over the centuries, numerous theories of gravitation have been proposed, with the work of ancient Greek philosophers being furthered by Indian, Islamic, and European scientists during the Middle Ages. The Renaissance and Scientific Revolution then saw great strides in the field, culminating in the formulation of Newton's law of gravity.
In the 7th century, Indian astronomer Brahmagupta was the first scholar to describe gravity as an attractive force. He proposed that the earth attracts and keeps things due to its nature, just as it is in the nature of water to flow. Another Indian mathematician and astronomer, Bhāskara II, further described gravity as an inherent attractive property of the Earth.
In the 4th century BC, Greek philosopher Aristotle found that objects immersed in a medium tend to fall at speeds proportional to their weight. However, he did not understand gravity as a force. This view was widely accepted in Ancient Greece, but other thinkers like Plutarch correctly predicted that the attraction of gravity was not unique to Earth. In the 1st century BC, Roman engineer and architect Vitruvius understood that objects fall based on their specific gravity, rather than their weight.
In the 6th century AD, Byzantine Alexandrian scholar John Philoponus modified Aristotle's concept of gravity with the theory of impetus, which proposed a causative force that diminishes over time. In the 14th century, European philosophers Jean Buridan and Albert of Saxony, influenced by Islamic scholars, developed the theory of impetus further and linked it to the acceleration and mass of objects. Albert also formulated a law of proportion regarding the free fall of objects.
In the 16th century, Italians found that objects in free fall tend to accelerate equally. Galileo Galilei put forth the basic principle of relativity in 1532, and in 1609, Johannes Kepler described gravity as a mutual attraction, recognizing that mechanical forces cause action. In 1657, Robert Hooke published his hypothesis that the Moon has its own gravity.
In the late 19th century, attempts were made to combine Newton's force law with the established laws of electrodynamics. While these hypotheses were rejected due to their outdated basis, they paved the way for later theories. In the early 20th century, Einstein's special and general theories of relativity superseded Newton's classical mechanics.
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Frequently asked questions
Isaac Newton formulated the first law of gravitation.
The first law of gravitation, also known as Newton's law of universal gravitation, states that every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres of mass.
Newton is said to have been inspired by an apple falling from a tree in his mother's garden. He realised that if the gravitational force could extend above the ground to a tree, it might also reach the Sun.
Newton's law of gravitation was a major triumph as it answered very old questions about nature and provided support for the notion of underlying simplicity and unity in nature. It also marked the unification of previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with known astronomical behaviours.
Yes, Newton's law of gravitation was superseded by Albert Einstein's theory of relativity in the early 20th century. However, the law is still used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity in most applications.
