Cecily Zamora
The Ottoman Empire was a warrior polity in Northwestern Anatolia in the late thirteenth century. During its expansion phase, slavery and slave raiding greatly contributed to the enrichment of the military, state officials, mercenaries, and some merchants and private owners. The institution of slavery in the Ottoman Empire was modeled on the institution of slavery in previous Muslim empires of the Middle East. Islamic Law allowed for Muslims to enslave non-Muslims, unless they were zimmis (protected minorities who had accepted Muslim rule), and slaves were therefore non-Muslims imported from non-Muslim lands outside of the Empire. African slaves were considered valuable and were often sold in the slave markets of Fezzan in Libya and Upper Egypt.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Reason for slavery | Low-wage workers who were forcefully tied to state service |
| Source of slaves | Wars and politically organized enslavement expeditions in the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Central Europe, Southeast Europe, the Western Mediterranean, and Africa |
| Slave raiding | A practice that contributed to the enrichment of the military, state officials, mercenaries, and some merchants and private owners |
| Islamic law on slavery | Muslims could enslave non-Muslims unless they were zimmis (protected minorities who had accepted Muslim rule) |
| Islamic law on slavery | Only non-Muslim war captives could be made slaves |
| Islamic law on slavery | Under Islamic law, slaves had to be provided with shelter, clothing, food, and medical care |
| Islamic law on slavery | Freeing a slave was considered an act of piety |
| Slave trade routes | Trans-Saharan slave trade via Egypt and Libya, Red Sea slave trade, and Indian Ocean slave trade from East Africa via the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Peninsula |
| Slave trade | The slave trade was officially abolished in Tripoli by the Firman of 1857, but this law was never enforced |
| Slave trade | In 1875, the British Consul in Benghazi wrote that the slave trade had reached an enormous scale |
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What You'll Learn
The Ottoman Empire's slave sources
Balkans
The first of these routes supplied white slaves from the Balkans, who were used for military slavery. These slaves were often from Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Central Europe, and Southeast Europe. The Tatars, a tributary state and military ally of the Ottomans, played a significant role in supplying slaves from these regions through regular raiding operations.
Africa
The second route involved the import of black slaves from Africa, particularly Sudan and Egypt, via the Trans-Saharan slave trade. The Upper Nile Valley, southern Ethiopia, and the African Great Lakes region were also significant sources of slaves. These slaves were predominantly Pagans, which Islamic Law allowed to be enslaved. They were employed in households, on plantations, and in the army as slave-soldiers.
Black Sea and Caucasus
The third route supplied white slaves via the Black Sea and Caucasus regions. This included the early modern Crimean slave trade, which provided elite slaves and concubines to the Ottoman Imperial Harem. The trade of Circassians from the Caucasus developed into a luxury slave trade route, supplying the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East.
Other Sources
In addition to these three main routes, slaves also entered the Ottoman Empire from the Mediterranean, with an estimated 1 to 1.5 million slaves arriving via this route between 1530 and 1780. Smaller numbers of slaves also came from other regions, such as the Caucasus, Africa, and the Indian Ocean trade route.
It is worth noting that the exact number of slaves imported into the Ottoman Empire during this period remains uncertain, and historians debate the accuracy of various estimates.
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Islamic law and slavery
Islamic law, as interpreted from the Quran and hadith (sayings of Muhammad), allowed for the enslavement of non-Muslims captured in warfare or acquired through trade beyond the borders of Islamic rule. This was based on the concept of "dar al-Islam" (the Muslim world) being in a constant state of war with "dar al-harb" (the non-Muslim world). The Quran also permitted owners to take female captives or slaves as concubines, although it promoted abstinence as a better choice and prohibited slave prostitution.
In the Ottoman Empire, slavery was a significant part of the economy and society. The institution of slavery in the Ottoman Empire was modelled on previous Muslim empires and Islamic law. The main sources of slaves were wars, raids, and politically organised expeditions in various regions, including Africa, the Caucasus, and Europe. While slaves could be acquired through direct capture, trade networks, or illegal means, Islamic law provided certain protections for slaves. For example, slaves could marry other slaves or free persons and could not be forced into prostitution against their will. Additionally, slaves could gain freedom through manumission, either by their owner's declaration or by purchasing their freedom.
The views on slavery within Islam were not uniform, and various Islamic scholars and groups espoused different opinions throughout history. While slavery was a longstanding practice in the Muslim world, it faced pressure for abolition from colonial powers and due to economic and demographic changes in the 19th and 20th centuries. Today, slavery is considered forbidden in the modern context by most Islamic scholars, although a minority still argue for its legitimacy.
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Slavery as a status symbol
Slavery was a significant part of Ottoman society and its economy. The institution of slavery in the Ottoman Empire was modelled on previous Muslim empires, and Islamic Law allowed for Muslims to enslave non-Muslims. Africans were largely Pagans and were therefore viewed as legitimate targets of slavery. They were considered valuable and were often sold in the slave markets of Fezzan in Libya and Upper Egypt. The rarity of black people in Istanbul meant that only the wealthy could afford to own one, and they were considered a status symbol.
The enslavement of war captives was an ongoing practice from the beginning of the Ottoman conquests in the 14th century until the Greek War of Independence in the early 19th century. However, only non-Muslim war captives could be made slaves, and enslavement occurred mainly along the frontiers of non-Muslim lands. During the fall of Constantinople in 1453, women, girls, and boys were subjected to rape and then taken captive and sold into slavery.
While slaves in the Ottoman Empire were considered property under the law and lacked freedom, they still had some social freedoms. They were trained and educated and could be used as elite forces or lawmen. They could buy their own homes and even marry, provided they had the permission of their owners. If a slaveowner took a female black slave as his concubine and she bore him a son, even while a slave, the boy would be considered free. However, the children of a slave father and mother were considered slaves, even if the owners had given permission for the marriage.
Slaves in the Ottoman Empire were also provided for under Islamic Law, which required that they be given shelter, clothing, food, and medical care. Owners who treated their slaves cruelly could be punished, and freeing a slave was considered an act of piety. While unconditional manumission was always a possibility, it was not widely practised. Slaves could also exit slavery by converting to Islam or paying for their freedom, although this could lead to debt.
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Slave raiding and the military
The Ottoman Empire was initially a small state formed as a warrior polity in Northwestern Anatolia in the late thirteenth century. During its expansion phase, slavery and slave raiding contributed greatly to the enrichment of the military, state officials, mercenaries, and some merchants and private owners.
The main sources of slaves were wars and politically organized enslavement expeditions in the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Central Europe, Southeast Europe, the Western Mediterranean, and Africa. It has been reported that the selling price of slaves decreased after large military operations. In Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), about a fifth of the 16th- and 17th-century population consisted of slaves.
Islamic Law allowed for Muslims to enslave non-Muslims, unless they were zimmis (protected minorities who had accepted Muslim rule). Consequently, enslavement only occurred along the frontiers of non-Muslim lands, and did not happen in warfare against Muslim enemies. Citizens or subjects of a state that had signed a peace treaty with the Porte were considered off-limits and under protection. People hailing from a polity at war with the Ottoman Empire were deemed fit for enslavement. Non-Muslims could become enslaved through direct capture in warfare, but they could also be born into slavery, acquired via trade networks, or enslaved illegally.
Slaves were trafficked to the Ottoman Empire via three main routes: the Trans-Saharan slave trade via Egypt and Libya; the Red Sea slave trade across the Red Sea; and the Indian Ocean slave trade from East Africa via the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Peninsula. Africa was a major target for the supply of slaves, and they were largely Pagans and, hence, viewed as legitimate targets of slavery by Islamic Law. Known as the Zanj (Bantu), these slaves originated mainly from the African Great Lakes region and Central Africa. They were employed in households, on plantations, and in the army as slave-soldiers.
Ottoman law and social practice offered several ways of exiting slavery. Unconditional, direct, and absolute manumission was always a possibility, although not widely practiced. For religious, moral, or any other reasons, owners could set a slave free by way of a simple formula declaring the liberation of the individual, who could then claim their new status. A written attestation or credible witnesses represented further guarantees for the enfranchised. It was considered morally and conventionally inappropriate to manumit individuals deemed too old to provide for themselves. Ethical ideals suggested that owners assume responsibility for the material upkeep of their aged slaves until their death.
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Routes of the slave trade
The Ottomans created laws about slaves in line with Islamic Law, which allowed Muslims to enslave non-Muslims. Islamic Law, or Shariah, was supplemented by the Sultan's secular law, Kanun, which facilitated its implementation. The Ottoman Empire was unusual in that slaves were not seen as inferior, but rather as a status symbol. Slaves were often educated and used as elite forces, lawmen, or in other official roles.
The Transatlantic Slave Trade, also known as the Middle Passage, was the central artery of the slave trade, with complex networks of roads, paths, and waterways in the Americas transporting enslaved people from ports to the interior. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, approximately 12 million Africans were transported across the Atlantic as human cargo. The most common route was the Triangle Trade, connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
Triangle Trade
The Triangle Trade was a triangular trading route between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, with ships carrying manufactured goods from Europe to Africa, enslaved people from Africa to the Americas, and raw materials from the Americas back to Europe. During the most active years of the international slave trade (1700-1808), around 40% of enslaved Africans were transported in British and American ships.
Intra-American Trade
Once in the Americas, slaves were transported via overland or intercolonial maritime trades to secondary markets, extending their horrific journeys for weeks, months, or even years. For example, newly arrived Africans in Buenos Aires, Argentina, were forced to trek over 4,000 kilometers to what is now Bolivia, Ecuador, and Chile.
African Trade
The African captives were sourced from an immense area of West Africa, stretching from the coastal regions drained by the Sénégal and Gambia Rivers to the mountainous Futa Toro, Futa Bundu, and Futa Jalon, and farther east to settlements in the Sahel. The captives were transported over land and water through an intricate system of auxiliary traders who supplied food and other necessities to keep the captives alive during their long journeys.
Ottoman Trade
The Ottoman Empire was a major participant in the slave trade, with Africa as its primary source of slaves. The Ottomans inherited three main routes from the previous Muslim empires: the Trans-Saharan slave trade via Egypt and Libya, the Red Sea slave trade, and the Indian Ocean slave trade from East Africa via the Arabian Peninsula. These routes supplied the Ottoman Empire with slaves from the African Great Lakes region and Central Africa, who were mainly employed in households, on plantations, and in the army.
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Frequently asked questions
The institution of slavery in the Ottoman Empire was modelled on the previous Muslim empires of the Middle East and Islamic Law. The laws were created to regulate the practice of slavery and define the ways in which people could enter and exit slavery.
The main sources of slaves for the Ottoman Empire were wars and politically organized enslavement expeditions in the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Central Europe, Southeast Europe, the Western Mediterranean, and Africa.
Under Islamic law, slave owners were required to provide their slaves with shelter, clothing, food, and medical care. It was considered morally and legally inappropriate to manumit individuals deemed too old to provide for themselves.
There were several ways for a slave to gain freedom in the Ottoman Empire. Unconditional, direct, and absolute manumission was always a possibility, although not widely practiced. For religious, moral, or any other reasons, owners could set a slave free by declaring their liberation, who could then claim their new status. Slaves could also buy their freedom through contractual manumission, although this could lead to debt.
Slaves in the Ottoman Empire were often considered part of their owner's family. They could buy their own homes, marry with their owner's permission, and join the military or become lawmen. Eunuchs played an important role in the Ottoman palace, receiving education and advancing in the palace or military based on their performance.
