Kara Sears
The concept of natural law has a long history in philosophy and ethics, with its roots traced back to ancient Stoicism and the work of philosophers like Aquinas. It refers to the belief that there is an inherent and objective morality present in nature, which serves as a guide for human behaviour. A central question in this discussion is the role of a divine entity, such as God, in the creation and enforcement of these laws. While some proponents of natural law argue that the existence of universal laws proves the existence of God, critics point out the logical fallacies in this argument and assert that natural laws can exist independently of a divine creator. This debate centres around the intrinsic moral authority of natural law and whether it requires an authoritative being, such as God, to impose and enforce these laws. The relationship between natural law and God is a complex one, with various philosophical and theological perspectives offering different interpretations, leaving room for ongoing debate and exploration.
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What You'll Learn
The Natural Law Argument for God's existence
The existence of natural laws and the inherent order in the universe have been used as arguments for the existence of a superior being or God. This is known as the Natural Law Argument for God's existence. The argument suggests that just as human laws are created by someone in authority, the laws of nature must have been created by a higher power, and that power is God.
However, defenders of the Natural Law Argument may counter these criticisms by disputing the conception of natural laws presented by critics. They may argue that the intrinsic moral authority of natural law implies the existence of an authoritative being, such as God, who imposes these laws upon us. This debate between natural law theorists and theological voluntarists continues to shape the discussion around the Natural Law Argument for God's existence.
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The incompatibility of natural law with atheism
Aquinas's view of natural law asserts that the universe obeys laws, implying the existence of a lawgiver. This lawgiver, in the context of natural law, is God. Atheism, as defined by its rejection of the existence of a divine being, inherently contradicts this foundational aspect of natural law theory. The precepts of natural law, which are understood to be binding and authoritative, are derived from the concept of divine providence, which is central to Aquinas's paradigm.
Furthermore, the natural law view holds that certain moral claims about the good are universally knowable. This knowability implies a level of objectivity and universality that is difficult to reconcile with the subjective and individualistic nature of atheistic moral philosophy. The natural law theory, with its emphasis on divine providence, suggests an external and transcendent source of moral authority, which contrasts with the internal and subjective nature of atheistic moral systems.
Additionally, natural law theory is incompatible with nihilism, relativism, and conventionalism in moral philosophy. The natural law view asserts the existence of intrinsic moral values that are binding on all human beings. This is in direct opposition to nihilism, which rejects the existence of any values, and relativism and conventionalism, which assert that values are relative to one's community or determined by social conventions.
While some atheists may attempt to reconcile their beliefs with the natural law by appealing to a primordial law or a state of nature, these arguments often miss the point of the Natural Law argument. The natural law, as defined by Aquinas, inherently requires the existence of a divine lawgiver, and any attempt to explain the laws of nature without acknowledging this fundamental aspect fails to address the central tenet of the natural law paradigm. Therefore, it can be concluded that the natural law theory, as articulated by Aquinas, is inherently incompatible with atheism due to its reliance on the existence of a divine being and its objective and universal moral claims.
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The Stoics' belief in a divine spark
Stoicism is a philosophy that encourages individuals to think independently, but it also requires adherents to accept the guidance to "Live in accord with Phusis". The Stoics believed in a divine spark, or a manifestation of the Divine Fire, which is the intelligent and purposeful Whole of which humans are a part. This belief is summed up in the phrase, "we are each a 'spark of the Divine Fire'".
The founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium, believed that all humanity had a soul – a divine spark – that eventually returned to divine eternity. Zeno saw fire as the original and preeminent element of the universe, and Stoics believed that the universe burns itself up periodically, with the world then beginning anew. Zeno believed that this was a manifestation of godly reason, and that passion was detrimental to reason and therefore ungodly.
Zeno's belief in the brotherhood of man led him to the conclusion that God was the father to all and that all men were therefore brothers. Zeno wrote a utopian text, The Republic, describing a society of people joined voluntarily under divine laws to which everyone consented. Stoics believed that God worked in mysterious ways, and that humanity was only able to see a tiny portion of God's plan. They explained the existence of evil as God exercising people for virtue, and that people had to choose between God's purpose and error.
The Stoic belief in a divine spark is also reflected in the idea that the purpose of life is to serve God's plan. This is in contrast to competing philosophies, such as Epicureanism, which holds that the purpose of life is to seek happiness. The Stoics also believed in the importance of brotherhood and sought change through reason and agreement, rather than violence.
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The criticism of natural law as unable to show intrinsic moral authority
Natural law, as a moral theory, proposes that moral standards governing human behaviour are inherently derived from human nature and the nature of the world. This theory, with roots in the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle, asserts that humans possess an intrinsic sense of right and wrong, leading to the discovery of universal moral standards that transcend time and culture.
However, critics argue that the precepts of natural law can only be considered binding if they are imposed by an authoritative figure, typically a deity. This criticism challenges the notion that natural law can stand alone as the basis of moral obligation. According to this perspective, the rules of natural law are not inherently authoritative, and their moral force relies on an external source of imposition.
The debate surrounding the intrinsic moral authority of natural law has been ongoing since the time of Aquinas, with scholars such as Scotus, Ockham, and Suarez presenting opposing views. Contemporary natural law theorists, like Grisez and Finnis, continue to grapple with this issue, offering various responses. Some argue against a distinct separation between morality and reason, while others embrace the distinction but assert that natural law aligns with our clearest conception of morality.
The criticism of natural law's intrinsic moral authority has significant implications for the relationship between natural law and legal theory. Natural law legal theory asserts that the authority of legal standards is derived, at least in part, from their moral merit. If natural law itself is unable to demonstrate intrinsic moral authority, it raises questions about the foundation of legal authority and the role of human beings in the creation of laws.
In conclusion, the criticism of natural law as unable to show intrinsic moral authority is a central issue in the discussion of natural law theory. This criticism challenges the self-sufficiency of natural law, suggesting that an external source of imposition, such as a divine being, is necessary for its moral authority. This debate has persisted throughout the history of philosophical thought, with ongoing contributions from contemporary scholars.
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The interpretation of human practices to understand natural law
The interpretation of human practices is integral to understanding natural law. This is because, in ethics, natural law theory asserts that certain rights and moral values are inherent in human nature and can be understood universally, independent of enacted laws or societal norms.
The interpretation of human practices as a means to understanding natural law has been discussed by several philosophers and theorists. Jean Porter, for instance, argues that by examining various social structures exhibited across different cultures, we can identify the "starting points" for assessing proposed norms of action. Jonathan Crowe, meanwhile, emphasizes that knowledge of natural law is an outcome of interpreting human practices, a process that is historically extended and ongoing.
The idea of interpreting human practices to understand natural law is also present in the work of Thomas Aquinas, a key figure in the natural law tradition. Aquinas's view of natural law, as outlined in his Summa Theologica, is central to the Catholic Church's understanding of natural law. According to Aquinas, natural law consists of two key features: from God's perspective, it is law through its place in divine providence; from a human perspective, it constitutes a set of naturally binding and knowable precepts of practical reason. This interpretation of natural law is incompatible with atheism, as it requires the existence of a divine being.
Other theorists, such as John Finnis and Brian Bix, have critiqued the interpretation of Aquinas's work, arguing that Aquinas should not be viewed as a conceptual naturalist. They suggest that statements like "an unjust law is no law at all" should be interpreted to mean that unjust laws are not laws "in the fullest sense," rather than taking them literally.
In summary, the interpretation of human practices is crucial to understanding natural law, and this interpretation unfolds historically and cross-culturally. Theorists such as Porter and Crowe emphasize the role of social structures and practices in understanding natural law, while the work of Aquinas highlights the interplay between the divine and human perspectives. However, the interpretation of natural law is a complex and ongoing task, with various theories and perspectives contributing to our understanding.
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Frequently asked questions
It depends on the philosophical school of thought. The natural law position, as understood by Aquinas, states that natural law constitutes a set of naturally binding and knowable precepts of practical reason. This view is incompatible with atheism as it requires a divine being to create and enforce the laws. However, some critics argue that the natural law view is unable to show that the natural law is intrinsically morally authoritative and requires an authoritative being like God to impose these laws on humans.
The Natural Law Argument states that the laws of nature must have been created by someone, and the only candidate is God. Therefore, the existence of universal laws proves that God exists. This argument has been criticised for confusing the two different meanings of the word "law", with natural laws being different from human laws that can be enforced and violated.
The concept of natural law first appeared among the Stoics, who believed that God is everywhere and in everyone, and that there is a "divine spark" within us that helps us live in accordance with nature. Medieval scholar Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī understood "natural law" as the survival of the fittest, arguing that a divine law sent through prophets was needed to overcome antagonism between humans. Other historical perspectives include the Roman Stoicism of Cicero, the view of Aristotle as referenced by Empedocles, and the work of Aquinas on the precepts of natural law.
