Cecily Zamora
Utilitarianism and natural law theory are two ethical theories that, despite stemming from different schools of philosophical thought, share some structural similarities. Both theories assume an objective moral order, suggesting that in every situation there is a universal right and wrong course of action. For example, a utilitarian and a natural law theorist may both choose to help an elderly woman cross the street, as the utilitarian would see it as the greatest good and the natural law theorist would see goodness and the preservation of life as reasons to offer assistance. However, the differences between these two theories are profound. Utilitarianism's felicific calculus is a concrete process of weighing a moral decision, while a natural law theorist makes decisions based on their conscience.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Both assume an objective moral order | Utilitarianism: pleasure/happiness must be sought out by any means |
| Natural Law: an Eternal Law from which natural law and civil law derive | |
| Both involve some sort of calculation | Utilitarianism: pro/con calculus |
| Natural Law: based on conscience and reason | |
| Both may lead to the same course of moral action in a given situation | Utilitarianism: helping an elderly woman cross the street for the "greatest good" |
| Natural Law: helping an elderly woman cross the street for the "preservation of life" |
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What You'll Learn
- Utilitarianism and natural law theory both assume an objective moral order
- Utilitarianism seeks happiness, while natural law supports an Eternal Law
- Utilitarianism uses a pro/con calculus, while natural law depends on conscience
- Act-utilitarianism is more likely to ignore moral rules
- Both theories involve some sort of calculation
Utilitarianism and natural law theory both assume an objective moral order
Utilitarianism and natural law theory are two distinct schools of philosophical thought with some structural similarities. One of the overarching parallels between these two ethical theories is that they both assume an objective moral order. This means that, regardless of the situation, there is a universal right and wrong course of action. As a result, it is possible for adherents of utilitarianism and natural law theory to arrive at the same moral conclusion in a given scenario.
Utilitarianism, first proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789 and later refined by John Stuart Mill in 1859, is a philosophical theory that evaluates a wide range of choices faced by people, including actions, laws, policies, character traits, and moral codes. It is a form of consequentialism, as it asserts that the consequences or results of these choices determine whether they are good or bad, right or wrong. Utilitarianism argues that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number. In other words, utilitarians believe that pleasure (or happiness) must be pursued regardless of the means to achieve it.
Natural law theory, on the other hand, was proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century in his "Summa Theologica." According to this theory, moral standards that govern human behaviour are objectively derived from the nature of human beings and the world. Natural law supports the idea of an Eternal Law from which natural law and civil law are derived through reason. While natural law theory acknowledges the existence of universal moral truths, it differs from utilitarianism in its reliance on conscience and virtue rather than a calculation of consequences.
Despite their differences, both utilitarianism and natural law theory involve a form of calculation. Utilitarianism employs a concrete process called felicific calculus to weigh moral decisions, while natural law theorists consider their conscience and virtues such as honesty to guide their actions. In practice, this means that a utilitarian and a natural law theorist may arrive at the same moral decision despite their differing ethical frameworks. For example, when faced with an elderly woman who needs help crossing the street, a utilitarian would argue for assisting her to maximize happiness, while a natural law theorist would see goodness and the preservation of life as reasons to offer help.
In conclusion, both utilitarianism and natural law theory assume an objective moral order by recognizing the existence of universal right and wrong actions. While they differ in their methodologies and underlying philosophies, both ethical theories can lead to similar moral conclusions in certain situations.
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Utilitarianism seeks happiness, while natural law supports an Eternal Law
Utilitarianism is a family of normative ethical theories that prescribe actions that maximize happiness and well-being for individuals. The founder of utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham, described utility as the capacity of actions or objects to produce benefits, such as pleasure, happiness, and good, or to prevent harm, such as pain and unhappiness, to those affected. According to Bentham, humans are ruled by two sovereign masters—pleasure and pain. We seek pleasure and the avoidance of pain, and these "govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think."
Utilitarianism, as a version of consequentialism, states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. This means that morally appropriate behavior will not harm others, but instead increase happiness or 'utility'. However, critics of utilitarianism argue that it is challenging to quantify, compare, or measure happiness or well-being. For instance, it is difficult to determine whether the life of an ascetic monk contains more or less intrinsic value than the life of a happy libertine.
On the other hand, natural law refers to a type of moral theory and a type of legal theory. The core claims of these two theories are logically independent, yet they intersect. According to the natural law moral theory, the moral standards that govern human behavior are objectively derived from the nature of human beings and the world. The natural law legal theory asserts that the authority of legal standards derives, at least in part, from the moral merit of those standards.
Eternal law, as distinguished by Aquinas, is comprised of the laws that govern the nature of an eternal universe. These laws can be understood as the scientific (physical, chemical, biological, psychological, etc.) 'laws' that order the universe. Natural law, in relation to eternal law, consists of the precepts of eternal law that govern the behavior of beings possessing reason and free will. Thus, natural law supports an Eternal Law, as it is derived from the laws governing the eternal universe and applied to the behavior of rational beings.
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Utilitarianism uses a pro/con calculus, while natural law depends on conscience
Utilitarianism and natural law theory are two ethical theories that assume an objective moral order. This means that, in every situation, there is a universal right and a universal wrong course of action. Despite their differences, the two theories have some structural similarities. For example, both theories involve some sort of calculation. However, utilitarianism uses a pro/con calculus, while natural law depends on conscience.
Utilitarianism, first proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789, argues that pleasure (or happiness) must be sought out no matter the means of achieving it. Bentham provided a model for this type of decision-making in his description of a "hedonic calculus", which was meant to show what factors should be used to determine amounts of pleasure and happiness, pain and suffering. This is the concrete extreme of weighing a moral decision.
On the other hand, natural law theory, proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, supports the idea of an Eternal Law from which the natural law of man and civil law derive and can be reasoned. While Aquinas' proposal assumes objectivity, it is also contingent upon self-discernment and the development of conscience in making moral decisions. A natural law theorist goes through the same process of weighing a moral decision as a utilitarian, but they do so based on their conscience.
For example, consider Sally, who is walking through the mall when she finds a $20 bill. A utilitarian would weigh the benefits of keeping the money for charity or turning it in to customer service. A natural law theorist, on the other hand, would draw upon the virtue of honesty and then consider the consequences of keeping or turning in the money. Ultimately, it is possible that Sally could decide to take the same course of action in both scenarios, despite the differences in moral reasoning.
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Act-utilitarianism is more likely to ignore moral rules
Utilitarianism, proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789, is a moral theory that argues that pleasure or happiness must be pursued no matter the means of achieving it. John Stuart Mill, Bentham's successor, refined utilitarianism in his 1859 publication, "On Liberty". According to utilitarianism, the purpose of morality is to increase the amount of good in the world and decrease the amount of bad. Act utilitarians focus on the effects of individual actions, applying the utilitarian principle directly to the evaluation of those actions.
On the other hand, natural law theory, proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, supports the idea of an Eternal Law from which natural law and civil law derive and can be reasoned from. While utilitarianism and natural law theory stem from different schools of philosophical thought, they share some structural similarities. Both theories assume an objective moral order, implying that in every situation, there is a universal right and wrong course of action.
Despite these similarities, the differences between utilitarianism and natural law theory are profound. Act utilitarianism, in particular, has been criticized for its tendency to disregard moral rules in pursuit of the greatest good. While rule utilitarianism emphasizes following societal, civil, and moral rules to achieve overall happiness, act utilitarianism is willing to condemn following rules if breaking them leads to a better outcome. This disregard for moral rules can undermine trust and security, as people may no longer rely on others to act in accordance with important moral principles.
For example, consider a judge who is an act utilitarian. If they believe that lying in a particular case will maximize well-being, they may disregard the moral rule of truth-telling and lie. This could lead to a loss of trust in the justice system and raise questions about the impartiality of judges. Similarly, a doctor who is an act utilitarian might justify using the organs of one patient to benefit others if it maximizes happiness, even though it violates ethical medical standards.
In conclusion, while utilitarianism and natural law theory share some similarities, act utilitarianism is more likely to ignore moral rules. This disregard for moral rules can have significant implications for trust, security, and societal institutions. Critics argue that the rigidity of traditional moral rules is essential for maintaining social order and stability.
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Both theories involve some sort of calculation
While utilitarianism and natural law theory originate from different schools of philosophical thought, they share some structural similarities. One of the most notable parallels is that both ethical theories assume an objective moral order, implying that in any given situation, there exists a universal right and wrong course of action. This assumption leads to the potential for adherents of both theories to arrive at the same moral conclusion in certain situations. For example, when encountering an elderly woman who needs assistance crossing the street, a utilitarian might reason that the greatest good would be to help her, while a natural law theorist might appeal to the goodness and the preservation of life as reasons to offer assistance.
Despite their differences, another commonality between utilitarianism and natural law theory is that they both involve a form of calculation. Utilitarianism employs a concrete system known as felicific calculus to weigh moral decisions, while natural law theorists rely on their conscience and reason to make similar evaluations. This process involves considering virtues and their potential consequences. For instance, an individual named Sally, upon finding a twenty-dollar bill in a mall, would face a moral dilemma. As a utilitarian, she would weigh the benefits of keeping the money for charity against returning it to customer service. In contrast, as a natural law theorist, she would appeal to the virtue of honesty and contemplate the consequences of both actions. Despite their contrasting approaches, it is possible for Sally to arrive at the same decision in either scenario, demonstrating the complex interplay between these ethical theories.
The concept of "calculation" in utilitarianism and natural law theory extends beyond mere rational analysis. In utilitarianism, the calculation often takes the form of a pro/con assessment, where the potential benefits and harms of an action are weighed against each other. This calculation aims to determine the course of action that will produce the greatest happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people, as advocated by utilitarian thinkers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. On the other hand, natural law theory, as proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas, involves a more intuitive form of calculation rooted in conscience and reason. Natural law theorists consider the inherent virtues and principles of actions, evaluating their moral worth and potential consequences. This process may involve reflecting on the alignment of an action with the Eternal Law, from which natural law and civil law are derived.
While both theories emphasize calculation, the nature of these calculations differs significantly. Utilitarianism's calculations are often more explicit and focused on the immediate consequences of actions, aiming to maximize happiness or pleasure. In contrast, natural law theory's calculations are more abstract and rooted in eternal principles and virtues. They emphasize the role of conscience and reason in discerning the moral worth of actions. This distinction highlights the differing underlying assumptions and values of the two theories. Ultimately, while both utilitarianism and natural law theory involve calculations, the specific methods, considerations, and goals of these calculations diverge, reflecting the unique perspectives and ethical priorities of each philosophical tradition.
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Frequently asked questions
Utilitarianism, first proposed by Jeremy Bentham in 1789, argues that pleasure or happiness must be pursued regardless of the means to attain it. Natural law, proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, suggests the existence of an Eternal Law from which natural and civil laws derive.
Both theories assume an objective moral order, implying universal right and wrong actions in every situation. They also involve some form of calculation and, in certain scenarios, can lead to the same moral conclusions.
Utilitarianism focuses on maximizing happiness, potentially disregarding moral rules, while natural law emphasizes following societal and moral rules to achieve goodness. Utilitarianism relies on a pro/con calculus, while natural law depends on one's conscience and virtue.
A utilitarian might consider finding money and weigh the benefits of keeping it or donating it to charity. A natural law theorist would emphasize honesty and consider the consequences of keeping or returning the money.
