Gavin Howe
The Thirteen Colonies were founded with royal authorization, and authority flowed from the monarch, with colonial governments exercising power in the king's name. The Middle Colonies, like the Southern Colonies, were based on written charters of agreement with the English king or parliament, and their governments were based on elected representatives. The British government exercised veto power over colonial legislation and retained control of law and equity courts, with judges selected by the Crown. The colonies were largely self-governing on domestic issues, but the Crown could grant ownership of a colony to a person or family, who could then make laws and appoint officials.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Type of colonies | Corporate colony, proprietary colony, charter colony, and royal colony |
| Charter colonies | Granted to businesses; colonists had no say in how they were ruled; business owners created laws and punishments |
| Proprietary colonies | Granted to a person or family; they could make laws and appoint officials as they pleased |
| Royal colonies | Had a colonial legislature elected by adult men who owned property in the colony; had a governor appointed by the king |
| Self-governance | The colonies were largely self-governing on many domestic issues |
| Veto power | The British government exercised veto power over colonial legislation |
| Control of courts | The British government retained control of the law and equity courts; judges were selected by the British government |
| Diplomacy | The British government handled diplomatic affairs, trade policies, and wars with foreign powers |
| Wars with Native Americans | Wars with Native Americans were generally handled by colonial governments |
| American Revolution | The dispute was over the British Parliament's right to enact domestic legislation for the American colonies |
| Unified government | Before the American Revolution, attempts to create a unified government for the thirteen colonies were unsuccessful |
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What You'll Learn
The role of the British government
The Thirteen Colonies were founded with royal authorisation, and authority flowed from the monarch as colonial governments exercised power in the king's name. The precise relationship between a colony and the Crown depended on whether it was a corporate colony, proprietary colony, or royal colony as outlined in its colonial charter. Royal colonies belonged to the Crown, while proprietary and corporate colonies were granted by the Crown to private interests.
The British government exercised veto power over colonial legislation and retained control of the law and equity courts, with judges selected by the Crown. The Privy Council exercised appellate jurisdiction over the colonies, which was delegated to the Board of Trade in 1679 and then transferred to the Privy Council Appeals Committee in 1696. The Appeals Committee was flawed due to the lack of legal expertise among its members, leading to disrepute among lawyers and judges in the colonies.
Diplomatic affairs, trade policies, and wars with foreign powers were also handled by the British government, while colonial governments typically handled wars with Native Americans. The American Revolution (1765-1783) centred on the dispute over the British Parliament's authority to enact domestic legislation for the American colonies. The British government asserted its unlimited authority, while the American position favoured coequal colonial legislatures outside of Parliament's jurisdiction.
Colonial assemblies had some agency in promoting immigration, which was viewed as profitable for settlement, increasing land value, and creating a protective barrier against foreign powers and Native Americans. However, Parliament restricted local powers over the naturalisation of aliens, with the Act of Settlement in 1701 barring naturalised subjects from high political offices.
In summary, while the Middle Colonies operated with some degree of self-governance, the British government retained significant control over legislation, judicial appointments, diplomatic affairs, and trade policies. The relationship between the colonies and the British government was a key factor in the eventual American Revolution, as tensions arose over the extent of Parliament's authority in domestic matters.
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The authority of the Crown
The Thirteen Colonies were founded with royal authorisation, and authority flowed from the monarch as colonial governments exercised power in the king's name. The precise relationship between a colony and the Crown depended on whether it was a corporate colony, proprietary colony, or royal colony as defined in its colonial charter. Royal colonies belonged to the Crown, while proprietary and corporate colonies were granted by the Crown to private interests.
In royal colonies, the Crown appointed a mix of placemen (paid officeholders in the government) and members of the upper class within colonial society. Councillors tended to represent the interests of businessmen, creditors, and property owners. The governor's council also functioned as the upper house of the colonial legislature and could introduce bills, pass resolutions, and consider and act upon petitions.
The British government exercised veto power over colonial legislation and retained control of the law and equity courts. Judges were selected by the British government and served at the king's pleasure. The Privy Council, technically the King-in-Council, exercised appellate jurisdiction over the colonies, which was later delegated to the Board of Trade in 1679 and then transferred to the Privy Council Appeals Committee in 1696.
Colonial assemblies had some autonomy in promoting immigration, which was in the interests of the Crown, proprietors, colonial governments, landowners, and agents as it would promote settlement, increase the value of land, and create a protective barrier for the colonies. However, in 1700, Parliament started to restrict local powers over the denization and naturalisation of aliens, and in 1740, it responded with a more liberal policy that eased the path to naturalisation for aliens in the American colonies.
While the colonies were largely self-governing on many domestic issues, the Crown and the British government retained ultimate authority and control over key aspects of colonial governance, legislation, and judicial matters.
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The influence of the Privy Council
The Thirteen Colonies, including the Middle Colonies, were all founded with royal authorization, and authority flowed from the monarch as colonial governments exercised authority in the king's name. The Privy Council, technically the King-in-Council, was a body of advisers who provided policy advice to the British sovereign. The Crown performed all official business concerning Anglo-America at the Privy Council meetings.
The Privy Council derived from the King's Council, which was created during the Middle Ages. In 1540, the Privy Council came into being as a small executive committee that advised the king and administered the government. It advised the sovereign on affairs of state and the exercise of the royal prerogative. It implemented its power through royal proclamations, orders, instructions, and informal letters, and also by giving directions to and receiving reports from the judges who traveled the circuits, hearing cases in cities and towns, twice a year. It concerned itself with public order and security, the economy, public works, public authorities and corporations, local government, Ireland, the Channel Islands, the colonies, and foreign affairs.
The Privy Council exercised appellate jurisdiction over the colonies, which was delegated to the Board of Trade in 1679 and transferred to the Privy Council Appeals Committee in 1696. The Appeals Committee was flawed because its membership was a committee of the whole Privy Council, of whom a quorum was three. Many Privy Councillors were not lawyers, yet all had equal voting power on appeals, and there was no requirement that any hearing an appeal had to be a lawyer. This led to disrepute among better-informed lawyers and judges in the colonies as parties to appeals tried to influence the outcome in their favour.
The Privy Council heard appeals from colonial courts, had veto power over colonial legislation, advised the monarch on the appointment of royal governors, and recommended the issuance of proclamations. Committees within the Privy Council for the oversight of the colonies included the Board of Trade and Plantations, the Council for Foreign Plantations, the Colonial Board, and the Committee for Trade and Plantations.
The Middle Colonies, like the other colonies, were largely self-governing on many domestic issues. However, the British government exercised veto power over colonial legislation and retained control of the law and equity courts, with judges selected by the British government. The Middle Colonies' governments were based on written charters of agreement with the English king or parliament, and their colonial governments were based on elected representatives.
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The rights of colonists
The Middle Colonies were ethnically and religiously diverse, with settlers from England, Scotland, Ireland, the Netherlands, and German states. The region was characterised by religious tolerance, attracting German Lutherans, German Reformed, Mennonites, Amish, Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, Dutch Calvinists, Swedish Lutherans, and Palatine Mennonites, among others. The Middle Colonies were also home to non-British colonists, including Dutch Reformed in upstate New York and New Jersey, and Congregationalists in Long Island.
The Middle Colonies included the Province of New Jersey and the Province of Pennsylvania, granted by the Duke of York and the King of England. Pennsylvania was governed by William Penn and his cousin William Markham, the first colonial deputy governor. The Pennsylvania Assembly successfully lobbied for expanded powers for elected officials, and Penn agreed to add their Charter of Privileges to the constitution. The Middle Colonies also included New York, which became a royal province when James II, the Duke of York, became King of England. New York briefly became part of the Dominion of New England in 1688, before citizens rebelled against the Royal Governor in Leisler's Rebellion.
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The impact of immigration
The Middle Colonies were ethnically more diverse than the other British colonial regions in North America and tended to be more socially tolerant. The region was once part of the Dutch colony of New Netherland until the British exerted control over the region in 1664. As a result, the Middle Colonies had a significant Dutch population. The English takeover also pushed Quakers from Rhode Island into the region, while Episcopalian businessmen settled in Philadelphia and New York City. The Middle Colonies also attracted Welsh Quakers, Baptists, Methodists, Scotch-Irish, French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Swiss, and Scots Highlanders. German immigrants, labelled the Pennsylvania Dutch, comprised one-third of the population by the time of the American Revolution. The industry and farming skills they brought with them helped solidify the Middle Colonies' prosperity.
The Middle Colonies also encouraged immigration from Irish Protestants, hoping to obtain indentured servants to work on estates and colonial developments. Indentured servitude was especially common in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York in the 18th century. The Middle Colonies were generally more welcoming of foreigners, with New York awarding citizenship to any foreigner who professed Christianity. This led to a more diverse populace.
Immigration to the Middle Colonies, and the United States more broadly, was driven by various factors, including crop failure, land and job shortages, rising taxes, famine, and the perception of economic opportunity. Between 1870 and 1900, nearly 12 million immigrants arrived in the United States, with the majority coming from Germany, Ireland, and England. While many immigrants settled near ports of entry, others ventured inland, with some states actively seeking to attract immigrants by offering jobs or land for farming.
The arrival of immigrants created social tensions, with stereotypes, discrimination, and verbal and physical abuse directed at those who were "different". However, large-scale immigration also brought new vitality to the cities and states where immigrants settled. The competition for jobs and economic opportunities led to racial suspicion and hatred, particularly towards Chinese immigrants, resulting in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which virtually ended Chinese immigration for a century.
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Frequently asked questions
The Middle Colonies consisted of the colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
The Middle Colonies were largely self-governing on many issues, with elected representatives creating laws and punishments. However, the British government exercised veto power over colonial legislation and retained control of law and equity courts.
The Middle Colonies had a mix of placemen (paid officeholders) and members of the upper class on advisory councils to the governor. These councils could introduce bills, pass resolutions, and consider petitions. The governors of the Middle Colonies were appointed by the king.
