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The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed between 1755 and 1750 BC. It is the longest, best-preserved, and most complete legal text from the ancient Near East. The Code was compiled near the end of Hammurabi's reign, the sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon, and was rediscovered in 1901 in Susa, present-day Iran. The text was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium. The Code of Hammurabi is notable for its comprehensive approach to law, covering subjects from criminal acts to medical practices and establishing standards for commercial interactions and fines. The laws are expressed as `if... then` conditional sentences, with harsh punishments that seem extreme by modern standards but were likely necessary to maintain order. The Code is also significant for its influence on generations, with the principles of justice, fairness, and accountability that underpin it still resonating today.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Height | 2.25 m (7 ft 4+1⁄2 in) tall |
| Weight | 4 tons |
| Material | Basalt, black stone, diorite |
| Language | Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian |
| Date of creation | 1755–1750 BC |
| Date of discovery | 1901 |
| Discovered by | Swiss Egyptologist Gustave Jéquier |
| Location of discovery | Susa, present-day Iran |
| Current location | Louvre Museum, Paris |
| Number of laws | 282 |
| Topics covered | Marriage and family, slander, trade, adultery, agricultural issues, irrigation, professional contracts, administrative law, etc. |
| Purpose | A piece of political propaganda to win the hearts and minds of citizens |
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What You'll Learn
The Stele's Discovery
The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-preserved, and best-organised legal text from ancient Near East. The Code was compiled near the end of Hammurabi's reign, the sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon. Hammurabi's Code is notable for its comprehensive approach to law, covering subjects from criminal acts to medical practices and family law.
The laws were inscribed on a basalt stele, a tall carved object, that was discovered in 1901 by the Swiss Egyptologist Gustave Jéquier at the ancient site of Susa in present-day Iran. The stele was looted by invaders and brought to Susa as spoils of war, likely by the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte in the mid-12th century BC. The text was first translated by Jean-Vincent Scheil, a French Dominican priest and Assyriologist, in 1902.
The stele is currently displayed in the Louvre Museum in Paris, with replicas in America and elsewhere in Europe, including the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City and the Peace Palace in The Hague. The original stele is 2.25 metres (7 feet 4+1⁄2 inches) tall and features an image in relief of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the relief are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text, with one-fifth containing a prologue and epilogue in poetic style, and the remaining four-fifths containing the laws.
The laws are casuistic, expressed as "if ... then" conditional sentences. They cover a broad range of topics, including criminal law, family law, property law, and commercial law. The largest category of laws in the Code of Hammurabi focused on marriage and family. For example, parents arranged marriages for their children, and after the marriage, the parties involved signed a marriage contract. The Code also includes specific rules that regulate medical treatments, set surgery fees, and punish malpractice.
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The Laws' Purpose and Influence
The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-preserved, and best-organised legal text from the ancient Near East. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian and consists of 282 laws. The code was purportedly written by Hammurabi, the sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon, who ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC.
The primary copy of the text is inscribed on a basalt stele 2.25 metres tall, which was rediscovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran. The stele features an image of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. Below the image are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text, with one-fifth containing a prologue and epilogue, and the remaining four-fifths containing the laws.
The Code of Hammurabi has been admired for its perceived fairness and respect for the rule of law, as well as for its complexity. It is considered a significant step forward in the development of law, medicine, and the medico-legal system. The code has influenced generations and continues to resonate today, with replicas of the stele found in various institutions worldwide, including the headquarters of the United Nations in New York City and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
The laws in the Code of Hammurabi cover a range of topics, including marriage and family, gender roles, sexuality, collectivity, family values, memory, and a collective understanding of history. The largest category of laws focuses on marriage and family, with parents arranging marriages for their children, and the husband and wife's families exchanging bridal payments and dowries, respectively. Women had fewer privileges and rights in the married relationship and were expected to fulfil domestic duties.
The purpose and legal authority of the Code of Hammurabi have been debated, with theories suggesting it is legislation, a law report, or an abstract work of jurisprudence. Some scholars argue that it is not a binding document for judicial operations but rather a symbolic expression of the king and a piece of political propaganda. However, it established social norms and brought individuals together as subjects equally subject to the law.
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Hammurabi's Rule
Hammurabi, the sixth king of the Amorite First Dynasty of Babylon, ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC. He is regarded as an important figure in the history of law, and his code of laws, also known as the Law Code Stele of King Hammurabi, is the oldest written code of laws known to mankind.
The Code of Hammurabi was carved onto a massive, four-ton, black stone stele (pillar) that was rediscovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran. The stele was found in three large fragments and has since been reconstructed. It is 2.25 metres (7 feet 4+1⁄2 inches) tall, with a circumference of 165 cm (5 feet 5 inches) at the summit and 190 cm (6 feet 3 inches) at the base.
The top of the stele features a relief image of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice. In the image, Hammurabi is seen as receiving the laws from Shamash, who is seated, complete with thunderbolts coming from his shoulders. Below the relief image are about 4,130 lines of cuneiform text, written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian. The text consists of a prologue and an epilogue, as well as 282 laws.
The laws in the Code of Hammurabi cover a range of topics, including marriage and family, slander, trade, adultery, and professional contracts. They established standards for commercial interactions and set fines and punishments to meet the requirements of justice. The laws also outlined different standards of justice for the three classes of Babylonian society: the propertied class, freedmen, and slaves. For example, a doctor's fee for curing a severe wound would depend on the social status of the patient, with a higher fee charged to a gentleman than to a freedman or slave. Penalties for malpractice followed a similar scheme, with more severe punishments inflicted on those who harmed members of a higher social class.
The Code of Hammurabi is considered an early example of fundamental law and government regulation, and it has had a lasting impact on the development of legal systems around the world.
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The Stele's Artistry
The Stele of Hammurabi is a basalt stele, 2.25 metres tall, discovered in 1901 at the ancient site of Susa in modern-day Iran. It is a striking work of art, featuring an image of Hammurabi with Shamash, the Babylonian sun god and god of justice, at the top. Hammurabi is depicted standing before the seated Shamash, raising his hand in deference, while Shamash extends a rod and a ring—symbols of authority—to Hammurabi, emphasising that the king's authority comes from the god. This representation of Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash underscores the divine nature of the laws and Hammurabi's role as a pious theocrat.
Below the relief image are approximately 4,130 lines of cuneiform text, written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian. The text is organised into five parts, with one-fifth containing a prologue and epilogue, and the remaining four-fifths comprising the laws themselves. The prologue includes Hammurabi's claim that he was granted his rule by the gods "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak", setting the tone for the laws that follow.
The laws are casuistic, structured as "'if...then' conditional sentences", with specific actions and their corresponding consequences. For example, if a man builds a house and it falls on the owner, the builder is put to death. This "'eye for an eye' principle, also found in the Bible, demonstrates the equivalence between crimes and punishments. The laws cover a broad range of topics, including criminal law, family law, property law, and commercial law, offering a comprehensive insight into Babylonian society and culture.
The Stele of Hammurabi is a remarkable fusion of art and law, with the visual representation of Hammurabi and Shamash at the top and the carefully inscribed text below. The artistic elements enhance the impact and significance of the laws, emphasising their divine origin and the authority of the king as the recipient of these laws. The stele's artistry, in conjunction with its legal content, has ensured its enduring appeal, attracting scholars, historians, and visitors alike.
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The Stele's Legacy
The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-preserved, and best-organized legal text from the ancient Near East. The code consists of 282 laws inscribed on a basalt stele, which was discovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran. The stele is currently displayed in the Louvre Museum in Paris, with replicas in several institutions around the world, including the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
The legacy of the Stele of Hammurabi lies in its impact on the development of law, medicine, and the medico-legal system. By codifying laws and making them public, the stele established a system that would influence generations to come. The principles of justice, fairness, and accountability that underpin the Code continue to resonate today. The stele is also a valuable source of information about Babylonian culture and society, shedding light on what was important to them and how they organized their society.
The Code of Hammurabi covered a broad range of subjects, including criminal law, family law, property law, and commercial law. It also included specific rules regulating medical treatments, setting surgery fees, and punishing malpractice. The laws were casuistic, expressed as "if...then" conditional sentences. For example, one law states that "if a man builds a house, and the house falls on the owner, the builder is put to death."
The stele is also notable for its representation of Hammurabi receiving the laws from the god Shamash, emphasizing Hammurabi's role as a pious theocrat. This representation demonstrates Hammurabi's belief that his authority came from the gods and that the laws themselves were divine. In the prologue, Hammurabi claims to have been granted his rule by the gods "to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak." This emphasis on fairness and protection for the weak has been admired by modern scholars.
The Stele of Hammurabi has had a lasting impact on the development of law and society, not only in ancient Mesopotamia but also in the modern world. It serves as a reminder of the debt that modern civilizations owe to the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and their contributions to the foundations of law and justice.
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Frequently asked questions
The laws were purportedly written by Hammurabi, the sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon. However, some scholars believe that the laws were not written by the king, but were instead listed from judgments that had already been made.
The laws were compiled near the end of Hammurabi's reign, which was from 1792 to 1750 BC, or c. 1810 BC - 1750 BC.
The stele was discovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran. It was found by Swiss Egyptologist Gustave Jéquier and French mining engineer Jacques de Morgan, who led an archaeological expedition to Persia.
