Jfk: Lawbreaker In The White House?

John F. Kennedy, the 35th president of the United States, was assassinated on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas. He was the youngest person to be elected president at 43 years old and served from 1961 until his death. During his time in office, Kennedy faced three major crises: the Bay of Pigs, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the emergence of a powerful civil rights movement. While he is often ranked as an above-average president, Kennedy's time in office was not without controversy.

One of the most notable instances of Kennedy breaking the law was his authorisation of the Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961. This involved an attempt to overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro using a counter-revolutionary insurgency of US-trained, anti-Castro Cuban exiles led by CIA paramilitary officers. The invasion ultimately failed, resulting in the death of 114 exiles and the capture of 1,189 others.

In addition, Kennedy's civil rights strategy has been criticised for focusing more on enforcing existing civil rights laws rather than passing new ones. During his presidency, African Americans were striving to reverse centuries of social and economic hardship, and activism against legalised racism was growing. Despite this, Kennedy's political strategy was to delay sending a civil rights bill to Congress until his second term.

Furthermore, Kennedy's administration has also been implicated in various assassination plots and covert operations. For example, in November 1961, he authorised Operation Mongoose, a covert operation aimed at overthrowing Fidel Castro's regime in Cuba. While the full extent of Kennedy's involvement in these plots remains unclear, these actions certainly raise questions about the legality and ethicality of his administration's activities.

Finally, Kennedy's personal life has also been the subject of scrutiny, with revelations of extramarital affairs and health issues that may have impacted his decision-making.

JFK's civil rights bill

John F. Kennedy's Civil Rights Bill of 1963 was a response to the civil rights demonstrations taking place across the United States, particularly in the South. Kennedy's bill was proposed in June 1963, and he addressed the nation on the topic on June 11, 1963.

The bill was a response to the civil rights demonstrations taking place across the country, particularly in the South. The 1963 Birmingham Campaign in Alabama, for example, made national news with images of children attacked by dogs and blasted with fire hoses. The Kennedy administration was compelled to take action.

The bill was also a response to the University of Alabama's attempts to prevent two African American students from enrolling. On June 11, 1963, Governor George Wallace stood in front of a university building to bar the students' entrance. President Kennedy federalized the Alabama National Guard to protect the students and allow them to register.

The Civil Rights Bill of 1963 was designed to guarantee equal access to public facilities, end segregation in education, and provide federal protection of the right to vote. It also included provisions to authorize the US Attorney General's Office to file legal suits to enforce desegregation in public schools and to authorize the withdrawal of federal funds from programs practicing discrimination.

The bill was left in the hands of Lyndon B. Johnson after Kennedy's assassination in November 1963. Johnson used his connections with southern white congressional leaders and the outpouring of emotion after Kennedy's death to pass the Civil Rights Act in July 1964.

The Cuban Missile Crisis

In 1961, the US government put Jupiter nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey. It also trained a paramilitary force of Cuban exiles, led by the CIA, in an attempt to invade Cuba and overthrow Fidel Castro's government. In response, the Soviet Union and Cuba agreed to place nuclear missiles on Cuba to deter a future US invasion.

In October 1962, an American U-2 spy plane photographed nuclear missile sites being built by the Soviet Union on the island of Cuba. President Kennedy met in secret with his advisors for several days to discuss the problem. After many long and difficult meetings, Kennedy decided to place a naval blockade, or a ring of ships, around Cuba. He referred to the blockade as a "quarantine", not as a blockade, so the US could avoid the formal implications of a state of war. Kennedy demanded the removal of the missiles already there and the destruction of the sites.

On October 22, 1962, Kennedy spoke to the nation about the crisis in a televised address. He noted:

> It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union.

The US had no plan for a response in place because it had never expected that the Soviets would install nuclear missiles on Cuba. Kennedy's advisors discussed several possible courses of action, including doing nothing, diplomacy, a secret approach, an invasion, an airstrike, and a blockade. The Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously agreed that a full-scale attack and invasion was the only solution. Kennedy, however, was skeptical and concluded that attacking Cuba by air would signal the Soviets to presume "a clear line" to conquer Berlin.

On October 24, Khrushchev responded to Kennedy’s message, stating that the US “blockade” was an “act of aggression” and that Soviet ships bound for Cuba would be ordered to proceed. Nevertheless, some ships turned back from the quarantine line, and others were stopped and found to contain no offensive weapons. Meanwhile, U.S. reconnaissance flights over Cuba indicated that the Soviet missile sites were nearing operational readiness.

On October 26, the crisis took a dramatic turn. ABC News correspondent John Scali reported to the White House that he had been approached by a Soviet agent suggesting that an agreement could be reached in which the Soviets would remove their missiles from Cuba if the United States promised not to invade the island. That same night, Khrushchev sent Kennedy a message that raised the specter of nuclear holocaust and presented a proposed resolution that resembled what Scali had reported earlier in the day.

On October 27, Khrushchev sent another message indicating that any proposed deal must include the removal of U.S. Jupiter missiles from Turkey. That same day, a U.S. U-2 reconnaissance jet was shot down over Cuba. Kennedy and his advisors prepared for an attack on Cuba within days as they searched for any remaining diplomatic resolution. It was determined that Kennedy would ignore the second Khrushchev message and respond to the first one. That night, Kennedy sent a message to the Soviet leader proposing steps for the removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba under UN supervision and a guarantee that the United States would not attack Cuba.

On October 28, Khrushchev issued a public statement that Soviet missiles would be dismantled and removed from Cuba. The crisis was over, but the naval quarantine continued until the Soviets agreed to remove their IL-28 bombers from Cuba. On November 20, 1962, the United States ended its quarantine.

The Bay of Pigs invasion

Planning the Invasion

The plan for the Bay of Pigs invasion was initially developed by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) during the Eisenhower administration. The plan was to train and arm a force of Cuban exiles with the ultimate goal of overthrowing Fidel Castro and establishing a non-communist government in Cuba. President Eisenhower approved the program in March 1960, and the CIA set up training camps in Guatemala.

Kennedy's Involvement

John F. Kennedy was briefed on the plan before his inauguration and authorized the invasion shortly after taking office in February 1961. The landing point at the Bay of Pigs was chosen to disguise US support for the operation. The invasion plan called for air strikes against Cuban air bases, followed by a landing of 1,400 Cuban exiles, known as Brigade 2506.

The Invasion

On April 15, 1961, eight CIA-supplied bombers left Nicaragua to bomb Cuban airfields but missed many of their targets, leaving most of Castro's air force intact. On April 17, Brigade 2506 landed at beaches along the Bay of Pigs and immediately came under heavy fire. The invasion force was defeated within three days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces.

Aftermath

The Vietnam War

John F. Kennedy, the 35th president of the United States, served from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. During his time in office, Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, which manifested in proxy contests in the Cold War.

Vietnam War

Kennedy escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War in 1961 by financing the South Vietnam army, increasing the number of U.S. military advisors above the levels of the Eisenhower administration, and authorizing U.S. helicopter units to provide support to South Vietnamese forces. On January 18, 1962, Kennedy formally authorized escalated involvement when he signed the National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) – "Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation)."

In March 1961, Kennedy voiced a change in policy from supporting a "free" Laos to a "neutral" Laos, indicating privately that Vietnam should be deemed America's tripwire for communism's spread in the area. Though he was unwilling to commit U.S. forces to a major military intervention in Laos, Kennedy did approve CIA activities designed to defeat Communist insurgents through bombing raids and the recruitment of the Hmong people.

Kennedy continued policies that provided political, economic, and military support to the South Vietnamese government throughout his presidency. By November 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors. More than 100 Americans had been killed in action, and no final policy decision had been made.

In October 1963, Kennedy signed NSAM 263, ordering the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of the year. However, this also approved the continued provision of support to South Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism and until the Viet Cong was suppressed.

Historians disagree on whether the U.S. military presence in Vietnam would have escalated had Kennedy survived and been re-elected in 1964. Some sources claim that Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election, while others suggest that Kennedy was undecided about what policy direction to take.

The Congo Crisis

John F. Kennedy, the 35th president of the United States, served from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. The Congo Crisis was among the most important foreign policy issues of his presidency. Here is a detailed account of the Congo Crisis:

Background

The decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa from the late 1950s to the mid-1970s resulted in several proxy Cold War confrontations between the United States and the Soviet Union over the newly independent, non-aligned nations. The former Belgian Congo gained its independence on June 30, 1960, marking the first such confrontation. In the months leading up to independence, the Congolese elected a president, Joseph Kasavubu, a prime minister, Patrice Lumumba, and established legislative bodies at the national and provincial levels.

Descent into Chaos

The newly independent nation quickly descended into chaos. On July 5, 1960, Congolese soldiers in the Force Publique mutinied against their white Belgian commanders, seeking higher pay and greater authority. The mutiny spread to other bases, and violence broke out across the nation. Thousands of Europeans, primarily Belgians, fled, and stories of atrocities against whites surfaced in newspapers worldwide. Unable to control the indigenous army, now renamed the Congolese National Army (CNA), the Belgians brought in troops without seeking permission from the Congolese government. In response, the Congolese government appealed to the United Nations for troops and demanded the removal of Belgian forces.

UN Intervention and Secessionist Movements

On July 13, 1960, the United Nations approved a resolution authorizing the creation of an intervention force, the Organisations des Nations Unies au Congo (ONUC). This resolution also called for the withdrawal of all Belgian troops. However, the situation became more complex as the wealthy Katanga province, followed by the South Kasai province in August, declared their independence from the rest of the Congo.

US Response and Lumumba's Assassination

While the United States supported the UN effort, members of the Eisenhower administration became increasingly concerned about the possibility of Soviet intervention in the Congo Crisis. They invited Lumumba to Washington, hoping to exert a moderating influence on him. However, reports from the CIA Chief of Station in Leopoldville (Kinshasa) described the situation as a "classic Communist takeover." The arrival of Soviet bloc technicians and matériel further convinced members of the US national security team that Lumumba posed a threat and had to be removed. There were even plans developed to assassinate Lumumba if necessary. On September 5, 1960, Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba from the government, but Lumumba ignored the decree and, in turn, dismissed Kasavubu. Lumumba's supporters pledged to support his return to office, but to avoid civil war, Colonel Joseph Mobutu of the CNA orchestrated a coup d'état on September 14 and ordered the Soviets out of the country.

Lumumba was blamed for an assassination plot against Mobutu and was ultimately arrested and killed on January 17, 1961, just three days before Kennedy's inauguration as president. Kennedy was devastated by the news of Lumumba's murder, as he admired the popular and charismatic Congolese leader. Kennedy's attitude towards Black Africa was that many of those considered leftists were, in fact, nationalists and patriots, lured to Communism due to years of colonization. He believed that Africa presented an opportunity for the West and that, unhindered by a colonial heritage, he could succeed in gaining the trust of African leaders.

Continued Unrest and US Involvement

Over the next four years, the Republic of the Congo installed a series of prime ministers, and the United States repeatedly attempted to create a stable, pro-Western regime through vote-buying and financial support for pro-Western candidates. Mobutu also received funds to gain the loyalty of the CNA and avoid rebellion. However, these efforts failed to quell the unrest in the volatile provinces. Concerned about the instability that would follow the departure of UN troops, the Kennedy administration signed bilateral military agreements with the Republic of the Congo. This resulted in a visit by Mobutu to Washington, where he met with President Kennedy on May 31, 1963.

Despite these efforts, the Congo continued to teeter on the brink of civil war. Mobutu orchestrated another coup d'état on November 25, 1965, removing both the president and prime minister and taking control of the government. He ruled the country, which was later renamed Zaire in 1971, until the mid-1990s.

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