Standardized Testing: A Historical Look At Legal Implementation

Standardized testing has been a part of the American education system since the mid-1800s. The tests, which are administered and scored in a consistent manner, have become a common way of determining a student's past academic achievement and future potential. In 2002, the No Child Left Behind Act mandated annual testing in all 50 states, leading to a rapid expansion of standardized testing across the nation. However, the history of standardized testing goes back much further, with the earliest known examples originating in 7th-century Imperial China. Today, standardized testing continues to play a significant role in education, with students across the United States participating in annual tests that cover a range of subjects. While some argue that standardized tests are an impartial and efficient way to evaluate student learning, others criticize their narrow focus and potential negative impact on teaching and learning.

Standardized testing in the US education system

Standardized testing has been a part of the US education system since the 19th century, but its widespread use in schools is largely a 20th-century phenomenon. The earliest forms of standardized testing were first used in China during the Han dynasty and 7th-century Imperial China, where they were used for government job applications.

Standardized testing was introduced to the US in the mid-1800s by Boston school reformers Horace Mann and Samuel Gridley Howe, who modelled their efforts on the centralized Prussian school system. The new tests aimed to provide a "single standard" to judge and compare the output of each school and to gather objective information about teaching quality. By the end of the 19th century, standardized testing had been adopted by school systems nationwide.

From 1875 through to the end of World War I, standardized tests were developed to determine student preparation for college. In 1890, the president of Harvard College proposed a national entrance exam for American colleges. In 1900, the College Entrance Examination Board was established, and in 1901, tests were offered across the US in nine subjects. In 1905, French psychologist Alfred Binet developed the first modern standardized test of intelligence, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.

During World War I, the US military used standardized testing to help assign servicemen to jobs. In 1916, the College Board began developing comprehensive examinations in six subjects, including essay questions, sight translation of foreign languages, and written compositions.

In 1926, the College Board created the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). The test initially consisted of around 300 questions testing vocabulary and basic mathematics. By the end of World War II, the SAT had become a staple for high school students intending to attend college.

In 1959, Everett Franklin Lindquist created the American College Testing (ACT) as a competitor to the SAT. The ACT included questions about a test-taker's interests, as well as math, reading, English, and science.

In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was enacted by President Lyndon Johnson. This included testing and accountability provisions to raise standards and make education more equitable.

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was passed in 2002 and mandated annual testing in all 50 states. This legislation required annual testing in reading and math (and later science) for students in grades 3 through 8 and again in the 10th grade. Schools that did not show sufficient progress faced sanctions and the possibility of being taken over by the state or closed.

The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was passed in 2015 and took steps to reduce standardized testing. It decoupled testing from high-stakes decision-making and allowed for more flexibility in how schools administered exams.

Standardized testing remains a widely used tool in the US education system. While there are critics and concerns about its effectiveness and impact on teaching, its objectivity, impartiality, and efficiency ensure its continued use.

The No Child Left Behind Act

Standardized tests have been a part of American education since the mid-1800s. However, their use increased significantly after the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was passed in 2002. The NCLB was a bipartisan effort to update the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and scale up the federal role in holding schools accountable for student outcomes.

To achieve these goals, the NCLB required all federally funded public schools to administer a standardized test annually to students in select grades. Schools were required to test students in reading and math in grades 3 through 8 and once in high school. They also had to report the results for the student population as a whole and for specific "subgroups," including English learners, students in special education, racial minorities, and children from low-income families.

The act mandated standards-based education reform, emphasizing annual testing, annual academic progress, report cards, and teacher qualifications. It also made significant changes to funding, requiring states to create and administer assessments to all students at select grade levels to receive federal school funding. While the NCLB did not set national achievement standards, it expanded the federal role in public education.

Impact and Criticisms

The NCLB generated controversy due to its focus on standardized testing and the penalties imposed on schools that did not show improvement. Critics argued that it encouraged "teaching to the test" rather than in-depth understanding of the curriculum. The act was also criticized for its narrow definition of research, the quality and distribution of teachers, and its negative impact on arts and elective programs.

However, supporters of the NCLB claimed that it increased accountability, linked state academic content standards with student outcomes, and provided valuable information for parents through detailed report cards. They also believed that it gave options to students enrolled in underperforming schools and demonstrated proficiency, even for subgroups that did not meet State Minimum Achievement standards.

Despite the criticisms, the NCLB led to a greater focus on struggling students and improved graduation rates for students with specific learning disabilities. It also pushed schools to give more attention, support, and help to disadvantaged students.

Replacement

Due to increasing bipartisan criticism, the national features of the NCLB were stripped away in 2015, and it was replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act, which aimed to address some of the criticisms and give more flexibility to states in setting standards for schools and student performance.

The Every Student Succeeds Act

Standardized tests have been a part of American education since the mid-1800s, but their use skyrocketed after the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2002, which mandated annual testing in all 50 states. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was introduced to replace and update the NCLB. Signed into law by President Barack Obama on December 10, 2015, the ESSA aimed to empower states and school districts to develop their own strategies for improvement.

The Purpose of the Every Student Succeeds Act

The purpose of the Every Student Succeeds Act, according to its statement, is "to provide all children with a significant opportunity to receive a fair, equitable, and high-quality education, and to close educational achievement gaps." The act was designed to address some of the shortcomings of the NCLB, which had become increasingly unworkable for schools and educators.

Differences Between NCLB and ESSA

While the ESSA retained the annual standardized testing requirements of the NCLB, it shifted the federal accountability aspect to the states. The ESSA leaves significantly more control to the states and districts in determining the standards students are held to. States are required to submit their goals, standards, and plans to the US Department of Education for approval. The ESSA also allows local educational agencies to apply for subgrants for local accountability plans.

Provisions of the Every Student Succeeds Act

Reception and Impact of the Every Student Succeeds Act

Standardized testing in China

Standardized testing has been used in China for centuries. The earliest known standardized tests were administered to government job applicants in 7th Century Imperial China. The tests were based on a rigid "eight-legged essay" format and assessed the applicants' rote-learned knowledge of Confucian philosophy.

The Imperial Examination system, which was formally started during the Sui Dynasty in 605 B.C., consisted of military strategy, civil law, revenue and taxation, agriculture, geography, and the philosophical works of Confucius and his disciples. Tests were designed for various levels of assignments within the government, with each degree requiring a more specific set of skills.

In modern times, China has the Gaokao system, a notoriously tough entrance exam that is the only factor determining a young person's future. The test, which takes place every year in June, is China's version of the American SAT and British A-level exams. The subjects on the test vary by region but typically include the Chinese language, mathematics, and a foreign language (usually English). The hardest questions are the essays, which can cover topics such as philosophy, history, the environment, and President Xi Jinping's policies.

While Chinese leaders have been working to move the country away from its rigorous focus on standardized testing, the United States seems to be heading in the opposite direction, with reformers pushing for a more test score-based model. This shift has led to concerns about the potential negative impact on innovation and creativity, as well as the possible disadvantages for students from low-socioeconomic backgrounds.

The history of standardized testing

Standardized testing has been used in various forms for centuries, dating back to Imperial China in the 7th century. However, the history of standardized testing as we know it today is much more recent and began to take shape in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The Origins of Standardized Testing

The earliest known standardized tests were administered in 7th-century Imperial China to government job applicants. These exams, based on a rigid "eight-legged essay" format, tested applicants' knowledge of Confucian philosophy and were in use until 1898. A similar system was also used during the Han dynasty, covering music, archery, horsemanship, arithmetic, writing, and knowledge of rituals and ceremonies.

Standardized testing was introduced to the Western world in the early 19th century through British colonial administrators, who modelled it on the Chinese mandarin examinations. It was first implemented in British India, where company managers used competitive examinations to prevent corruption and favouritism in employee hiring and promotion. This practice was later adopted by the British mainland in the late 19th century.

Standardized Testing in the United States

Standardized testing was introduced to the United States in the mid-1800s by Boston school reformers Horace Mann and Samuel Gridley Howe. They designed the tests to provide a "single standard" to judge and compare the performance of different schools and gather objective data on teaching quality. During this period, schools also shifted their focus from serving the elite to educating the masses, and written examinations began to replace oral tests. By the early 20th century, standardized testing practices had matured, with the development of college entrance examinations, intelligence tests, and statewide testing programs.

World War I and Beyond

During World War I, standardized testing was adopted by the US military to assign servicemen to appropriate roles based on their assessed intelligence levels. This period also saw the development of the first modern standardized IQ test, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, by French psychologist Alfred Binet. The College Board also began developing comprehensive examinations in six subjects, including essays, foreign language translation, and written compositions.

Post-World War II Developments

In the post-World War II era, standardized testing became even more prevalent in the United States. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) was introduced in 1926 and became a staple for high school students aspiring to attend college. Additionally, statewide testing programs expanded, and multiple-choice tests gained popularity due to their efficiency in administration and scoring.

Modern Era and Legislative Changes

The modern era of standardized testing in the US was marked by legislative changes and initiatives by US presidents. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, proposed by President Lyndon B. Johnson, aimed to raise testing standards and promote educational equity. Later, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 further emphasised state-mandated standardized testing, tying it to public school funding. However, this act faced criticism for its stringent requirements and one-size-fits-all approach. In response, the Every Student Succeeds Act was passed to reduce standardized testing and decouple testing from high-stakes decision-making.

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