Segregation Law: When Does It Apply?

The Law of Segregation, also known as Mendel's second law of inheritance, states that during the formation of gametes, each gene separates from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene. This means that in a monohybrid cross, both alleles are expressed in the F2 generation without any blending. Mendel's law of segregation is based on four basic concepts:

1. A gene exists in more than one form of an allele.

2. When gametes are produced by meiosis, the allelic pairs separate, leaving each gamete with a single allele.

3. Every organism inherits two alleles for each trait.

4. The two alleles of a pair are different, i.e., one is dominant and one is recessive.

The Law of Segregation was formulated by Gregor Johann Mendel, the father of genetics, in 1860. Mendel conducted experiments on pea plants and observed their pattern of inheritance from one generation to the next. He noticed that traits which were absent in the F1 generation reappeared in the F2 generation. Mendel's three laws of inheritance, including the Law of Segregation, were further developed by experiments on pea plants with a variety of different traits.

Segregation in the US Armed Forces

Following the Revolutionary War, the US Army refused to enlist Black men, and this prohibition remained in place until the second year of the Civil War. During the War of 1812, the US military remained segregated, and African Americans were largely barred from enlisting. However, as the war progressed and British forces launched invasions into US territory, Black soldiers began to be recruited, with 2,000 free Black soldiers trained in New York, receiving the same compensation as their white counterparts.

It was not until 1948 that segregation in the US Armed Forces was officially ended by President Harry S. Truman's Executive Order 9981, which declared a policy of equal treatment and opportunity without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin. Despite this order, the US military remained resistant to change, and it was not until the Korean War that military units were officially desegregated. Even then, racial tensions continued to cause segregation and infighting among units, especially during the Vietnam War.

The US Army Air Service, the precursor to the Air Force, was formed in 1918 and was initially segregated, with only white soldiers allowed to serve. During World War II, the Air Service faced a manpower shortage and began recruiting Black men, including the Tuskegee Airmen, the first African American military aviators in the US Armed Forces. Despite facing fierce opposition and racial discrimination, the Tuskegee Airmen trained and flew with distinction, playing a crucial role in the war effort.

The US Navy also has a history of segregation, with Black sailors facing restrictions and discrimination. During the War of 1812, Black sailors made up a significant portion of naval manpower, serving on privateers and naval ships. However, after the war, the number of Black sailors was reduced, and by the mid-19th century, they were largely restricted to serving as stewards and mess attendants. It was not until World War II that the Navy began to see some integration, with the formation of segregated construction battalions and the enlistment of Nisei (second-generation Japanese Americans) soldiers.

The US Marine Corps also had a history of discrimination, denying African Americans the opportunity to serve from 1798 to 1942. It was not until June 1942 that the USMC opened its doors to African Americans, accepting them as recruits in segregated all-black units. The integration process was slow and met with resistance, and it was not until the 1960s that full integration was achieved.

In conclusion, segregation in the US Armed Forces has been a long-standing issue, with each branch of the military implementing differing policies throughout US history. It was not until the mid-20th century that official steps were taken to end segregation, and even then, the process was met with resistance and racial tensions. The legacy of segregation and the fight for equal rights and opportunities for all in the military is a crucial part of US history, shaping the policies and practices of the Armed Forces today.

Segregation in sports

In horse racing, the Kentucky Derby began in 1875 with 13 out of 15 jockeys being African American, and 15 of the first 28 races were won by black athletes. However, the Jim Crow laws of the 1880s segregated blacks and whites, making it increasingly difficult for young black athletes to get involved in horse racing or any other sport.

In the 1920s, Jim Crow laws mandating the separation of the races were systematically instituted in the South, with "White Only" and "Coloured" signs appearing in public places. This segregation extended to sports, with black athletes being forced to compete in often-segregated leagues that offered less money and visibility than the pros.

After WWII, racial barriers in sports slowly began to drop. Jackie Robinson was the first black athlete to integrate professional sports when he joined the Brooklyn Dodgers, and other sports followed suit, including football, basketball, hockey, tennis, motorsports and golf.

Despite these changes, segregation in sports continued well into the 1960s, with golf remaining segregated until 1961, and NASCAR remaining segregated until 1963 when Wendell Scott became the first African American to win a race.

Today, segregation in sports is no longer legal, but there are still disparities in the number of black coaches, officials, and administrators compared to players and society in general. The NFL's 'Rooney Rule', established in 2003, requires teams to interview at least one minority candidate for head coaching and upper-level management positions, highlighting the persistence of racial divisions in sports leagues.

Segregation in housing

Housing segregation in the United States has been enforced through a combination of legal and social means, with facilities and services such as housing systematically separated based on racial categorisations.

History of Housing Segregation in the US

Housing segregation in the US has its roots in the post-Civil War era, with the emergence of "Jim Crow" segregation. This period saw the introduction of Black Codes and Jim Crow laws, which mandated the separation of races by law, and was enforced through practices such as redlining. Redlining involved marking neighbourhoods with high Black populations as "high-risk" areas, making it difficult for Black individuals to obtain mortgages or loans, and perpetuating a cycle of disinvestment and decay in these neighbourhoods.

During the New Deal era, public housing programs further contributed to housing segregation, with the creation of racially segregated public housing units. While these units were intended to alleviate housing difficulties for the poor and working class, they ended up concentrating minority groups in specific areas, leading to the formation of racial enclaves.

Factors Contributing to Housing Segregation

Housing segregation in the US is influenced by various factors, including socioeconomic status, spatial assimilation, and immigration. Income inequality plays a significant role, with higher-income groups having greater access to more affluent and predominantly white neighbourhoods. Additionally, strict land-use regulations in white communities further contribute to housing segregation, as these regulations are often used to maintain demographic exclusivity.

The availability of housing units also plays a role, with minority groups facing limited options due to discrimination and a lack of information about the housing market. Racial steering by real estate agents further exacerbates the problem, as they tend to direct clients to specific geographic locations based on race.

Effects of Housing Segregation

Housing segregation has far-reaching consequences, impacting various aspects of life for minority groups. It leads to unequal living standards, with minority groups experiencing higher rates of poverty, lower homeownership, and decreased economic mobility. Additionally, it contributes to the achievement gap in education, as segregated neighbourhoods often feed into under-resourced and segregated schools.

Housing segregation also affects health outcomes, with segregated minority communities experiencing higher levels of pollution, stress, and food insecurity. It also contributes to the concentration of poverty, as minority groups are confined to specific areas with limited access to employment and other opportunities.

Initiatives to Combat Housing Segregation

Efforts to address housing segregation include the implementation of the Fair Housing Act in 1968, which prohibited discrimination in the rental, sale, financing, and brokerage of housing. Additionally, the Section 8 housing program provides housing vouchers that can be used to rent units in the private market, offering greater mobility and access to higher-quality housing for low-income families.

Despite these initiatives, housing segregation remains a prevalent issue in the US, with minority groups continuing to face barriers to obtaining safe and affordable housing.

Segregation in education

The 1954 Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case was a landmark moment in the fight against segregation in education. The court unanimously overturned the doctrine of segregation in public schools, stating that separate was not equal. This ruling built on earlier efforts by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), who had been strategizing and bringing local lawsuits to court since the 1930s. Despite this pivotal moment, the integration of schools was a long and painful process, and many segregated schools remained unchanged for years.

Even today, US schools remain highly segregated along racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic lines. A 2022 report by the US Government Accountability Office found that more than a third of students attended a predominantly same-race/ethnicity school during the 2020-2021 school year. This segregation is maintained by various factors, including school district secession, where schools break away from diverse districts to form their own whiter and wealthier districts, deepening segregation.

The roots of segregation in education can be traced back to the 1800s, with the implementation of Jim Crow laws and Black Codes that enforced the separation of races. The 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case further upheld the constitutionality of segregation, as long as "separate but equal" facilities were provided. However, in practice, the facilities and resources provided to African Americans were almost always inferior to those of whites.

The fight against segregation in education was not without its pioneers. People like Prudence Crandall, who established a school for African American girls in Connecticut in the 1830s, and the students of Adkin High School in North Carolina, who organized a protest against the inequality of their local schools in the 1950s, are testament to the enduring struggle for equality in education.

While legal segregation has been outlawed, de facto segregation, or segregation "in fact", continues to exist due to contemporary behaviors and the historical legacy of de jure segregation. This is evident in the disparity between predominantly white schools and those serving minority groups, with the latter often receiving fewer resources and facing additional challenges.

The effects of segregation in education have major social repercussions, particularly for African American students, who may experience undue stress and cognitive development issues due to the prejudice they face. Additionally, the segregation of schools contributes to the perpetuation of hyper-segregated communities and the inequality gap between minority and white students.

Segregation in employment

Occupational segregation has a long history, with roots in slavery, Jim Crow laws, and sexist assumptions about women's roles. Even after legal segregation was outlawed in the 1960s, de facto segregation continued and still persists today. This is reflected in the distribution of workers across occupations, with certain groups being funnelled into specific jobs due to various societal and economic factors.

One factor contributing to segregation in employment is educational disparities. Minorities, particularly immigrants, face language barriers that hinder their access to higher-ranked jobs. Additionally, racial and ethnic differences in education levels have been cited as a primary explanation for the wage gap. However, even when comparing wages between races/ethnicities with the same educational level, differences persist, indicating that education is not the sole reason for the wage gap.

Another factor is individual preferences and self-selection. According to Eli Ginzberg, individuals' job choices are influenced by their degree of education, the value they place on different occupations, their emotions, and environmental restrictions. Adults tend to choose jobs with familiar work environments, and societal and job inequality can also influence these choices. Some women, for instance, self-select out of higher-status positions to spend more time with their families, maintaining the traditional gender hierarchy and household accord.

Employers also play a significant role in perpetuating segregation in employment. They may sort women and racial minorities into lower-paying jobs, selectively deny them promotions, and cater their recruiting and advertising to certain demographics. Additionally, employers systematically undervalue the work of women and racial/ethnic minorities through valuative discrimination.

The consequences of segregation in employment are far-reaching. It leads to wage gaps and the loss of opportunities for capable candidates who are overlooked due to their gender and race. It also contributes to overall wage gaps and limits economic growth. Furthermore, it results in unsafe working conditions, violations of labour standards, higher unemployment rates, and fewer benefits for marginalized groups.

To address segregation in employment, policymakers must remove structural barriers, ensure equal opportunities for all workers, and guarantee living wages and robust benefits for every job. Additionally, there is a need to improve access to education and training, strengthen anti-discrimination measures, and promote diversity and inclusion initiatives in the workplace.

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