Anaya Nolan
Mesopotamia, a region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, was never a unified area but was composed of numerous city-states, each with its own culture, customs, and laws. The Code of Ur-Nammu, created by Ur-Nammu of Ur in the 21st century BC, is the oldest known code of law from Mesopotamia. However, the most renowned Mesopotamian legal code is the Code of Hammurabi, created by Hammurabi, the sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon, around 1792-1750 BCE. Hammurabi united all of southern Mesopotamia and established the first Babylonian Empire.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Creator | Ur-Nammu of Ur |
| Date | 21st century BC (c. 2047-2030 BCE) |
| Language | Sumerian |
| Format | Casuistic ("if...then") |
| Preservation | Partly preserved |
| Number of laws | 57 (30 reconstructed) |
| Content | Strong statements of royal power, fines for bodily damage, capital offenses for murder, robbery, adultery, and rape |
| Social structure | King ("great man") at the top, followed by free people and slaves |
| Social mobility | Based on marital status, e.g., daughter (dumu-mi) to wife (dam) |
| Deities | Nanna and Utu |
| Location | Istanbul Archaeology Museums, Istanbul Museum, Iraq Museum in Baghdad |
| Subsequent codes | Influenced the Code of Hammurabi |
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What You'll Learn
Code of Ur-Nammu
The Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest known surviving law code from Mesopotamia, written in the Sumerian language on tablets c. 2100–2050 BC. It is attributed to Ur-Nammu, king of Ur, or his son Shulgi. The code is notable for its structure, content, and influence on later legal traditions.
The Code of Ur-Nammu is arranged in a casuistic form, following the pattern of "if (crime), then (punishment)", which was later adopted by many legal codes, including the famous Code of Hammurabi. This structure provided a clear framework for applying the law and determining appropriate punishments.
The content of the Code of Ur-Nammu reveals insights into the societal structure and values of Ur's Third Dynasty. It distinguishes between different social strata, including free persons ("lu") and slaves ("arad" for males and "geme" for females). The code also emphasizes the importance of equity and respect among the people, with punishments for crimes often taking the form of fines rather than harsher penalties.
One of the most well-preserved fragments of the Code of Ur-Nammu provides specific compensation amounts for bodily harm. For example, if someone knocked out another person's tooth, they would be required to pay two shekels of silver as compensation. This approach contrasts with the later "lex talionis" ("eye for an eye") principle of Babylonian law, showcasing the Code of Ur-Nammu's relatively nuanced approach to justice.
The Code of Ur-Nammu also included provisions for more severe crimes, such as murder, robbery, adultery, and rape, which were considered capital offenses. By presenting his laws as decreed by the gods, Ur-Nammu established a connection between divine will and legal compliance, encouraging his subjects to view themselves as a family adhering to a shared set of rules.
In conclusion, the Code of Ur-Nammu represents a significant milestone in the development of law in Mesopotamia and beyond. Its structure, emphasis on equity, and influence on subsequent legal traditions, such as the Code of Hammurabi, underscore its enduring legacy in the history of jurisprudence.
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Oldest surviving laws
The oldest surviving laws in Mesopotamia are believed to have been written by King Ur-Nammu, who ruled from the Sumerian city of Ur from 2047–2030 BCE or c. 2100–2050 BCE. The Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest known surviving law code and the first known law code, written on clay tablets in Sumerian cuneiform. Only parts of the code have been recovered, but they illustrate a style that would be used as the template for almost all future Mesopotamian legal writings. Ur-Nammu’s code consists of about forty paragraphs, each listing a specific crime followed by an accompanying punishment. For example, if a man knocked out another man's tooth, he would have to pay two shekels of silver.
The Code of Ur-Nammu is arranged in a casuistic form of "IF (crime) THEN (punishment)", a pattern followed in nearly all later codes, including the Code of Hammurabi. However, Ur-Nammu's laws were not as strict as those of later rulers. Several crimes were punishable by a death sentence, including murder, robbery, and adultery when committed by a woman. However, the punishment for most offences was a fine to be paid in silver.
The Code of Hammurabi, created by the Babylonian king Hammurabi around 1792–1750 BCE, is the most renowned and famous set of ancient Mesopotamian laws. Hammurabi was the sixth king in the First Dynasty of Babylon, which ruled in central Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) from c. 1894 to 1595 BCE. Hammurabi's Code includes 282 laws addressing a wide range of societal issues, such as property rights, family matters, and criminal justice. The Code of Hammurabi was carved onto a massive, finger-shaped black stone stele (pillar) that was looted by invaders and finally rediscovered in 1901 in Susa, present-day Iran.
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Sumerian law tablets
The Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest known surviving law code from Mesopotamia, written in the Sumerian language c. 2100–2050 BC. The code is written on tablets and contains strong statements of royal power, such as "I eliminated enmity, violence, and cries for justice". The tablets were discovered in Nippur, in what is now Iraq, and were translated by Samuel Noah Kramer in 1952. The tablets are now held at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums.
The laws in the Code of Ur-Nammu are arranged in a casuistic form of "IF (crime) THEN (punishment)", a pattern followed in nearly all later codes. The code includes fines of monetary compensation for bodily damage, with specific amounts of silver to be paid for various injuries, such as knocking out a tooth or cutting off a foot. Murder, robbery, adultery, and rape were capital offenses. The code also reveals the societal structure during Ur's Third Dynasty, with the king at the top and all other members of society belonging to one of two basic strata: free people or slaves.
Another important law code from Mesopotamia is the Code of Hammurabi, which was written during 1755–1750 BC. This code is also written on clay tablets and etched into stone. It is one of the oldest and best-preserved legal texts from the ancient Near East. The Code of Hammurabi covers a broad range of topics, including criminal law, family law, property law, and commercial law. It also includes provisions for specific situations, such as punishments for theft and the relationship between slaves and masters.
The discovery of these Sumerian law tablets has provided valuable insights into the legal systems and societal structures of ancient Mesopotamia. They represent some of the earliest attempts to establish a formal code of laws, reflecting the complex social hierarchies and relationships that existed during that time.
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Lex talionis
In ancient legal codes, lex talionis was applied to specify exact penalties for various crimes. For example, in Hammurabi's Code, if someone knocked out another person's tooth, the punishment was to pay two shekels of silver. If a man cut off another man's foot, he had to pay ten shekels. Similarly, if a slave escaped from the city limits and someone returned them, the owner had to pay two shekels to the person who brought the slave back. These laws were arranged in a casuistic form of "IF (crime) THEN (punishment)", a pattern followed in nearly all later codes.
While lex talionis is no longer prominent in Western law, it continues to influence debates about justice, punishment severity, and rehabilitation within criminal law. Critics argue that it may not address the underlying causes of crime or promote rehabilitation, and that modern approaches may require more nuanced understandings of justice and punishment. However, the concept of lex talionis has parallels in modern understandings of retributive justice, which focuses on punishing offenders in proportion to their crimes, considering both the severity of the offence and the idea of fairness.
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Hammurabi's reputation
Hammurabi is best known for issuing the Code of Hammurabi, which he claimed to have received from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver is so great that his depiction can be found in law buildings throughout the world. He is one of 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol. A frieze depicting the "great lawgivers of history", including Hammurabi, is on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building.
Hammurabi was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Empire, reigning from c. 1792 to c. 1750 BC. He was preceded by his father, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to failing health. During his reign, he conquered the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari. He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, the king of Assyria, and forced his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, bringing almost all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule. Hammurabi's conquests came to be regarded as part of a sacred mission to spread civilization to all nations.
Hammurabi is commemorated for three main achievements: bringing victory in war, bringing peace, and bringing justice. He was honoured above all other kings of the second millennium BC and was even declared a god within his lifetime. The personal name "Hammurabi-ili", meaning "Hammurabi is my god", became common during and after his reign. Unlike earlier Sumerian law codes, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, which focused on compensating the victim of a crime, the Law of Hammurabi was one of the first law codes to place greater emphasis on the physical punishment of the perpetrator.
Hammurabi's Code is the most complete extant collection of Babylonian laws. It consists of 282 case laws, including economic provisions, family law, criminal law, and civil law. The Code of Hammurabi and the Law of Moses in the Torah contain numerous similarities. Hammurabi's Code was inscribed on a basalt stele 2.25 m (7 ft 4+1⁄2 in) tall. The stele was rediscovered in 1901 at the site of Susa in present-day Iran, where it had been taken as plunder six hundred years after its creation. The text was copied and studied by Mesopotamian scribes for over a millennium. The stele now resides in the Louvre Museum.
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Frequently asked questions
The Code of Ur-Nammu, created by Ur-Nammu of Ur in the 21st century BC, is the oldest known code of law from Mesopotamia. However, the most renowned Mesopotamian legal code is the Code of Hammurabi, created by the Babylonian king Hammurabi around 1792-1750 BCE.
The Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest surviving law code, written on tablets in the Sumerian language c. 2100-2050 BC. It contains strong statements of royal power, such as "I eliminated enmity, violence, and cries for justice". The laws are arranged in a casuistic form of IF (crime) THEN (punishment), with fines of monetary compensation for bodily damage. Murder, robbery, adultery, and rape were capital offenses.
The Code of Hammurabi is a collection of 282 rules addressing a wide range of societal issues, including property rights, family matters, and criminal justice. The laws were inscribed on a seven-foot-tall basalt stele discovered at Susa in present-day Iran. The stele features an image of Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice.
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