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The Spartan Constitution, also known as Spartan politeia, refers to the laws and government of the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta. Notably, the Spartans had no written laws, literature, or historical records, which were traditionally prohibited. The Spartan system of government and its unique features, such as a rigid social structure and a formidable military, are attributed to the mythical figure of Lycurgus, a legendary lawgiver. The Spartan society was divided into distinct classes, including Spartiates (full citizens), Mothakes, Perioikoi, and Helots, with each group having specific roles and rights. The laws of Sparta, including land reforms and the concept of a social contract, played a significant role in shaping the city-state's identity and influenced various aspects of its citizens' lives.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Creator of Spartan laws | Lycurgus, a semi-mythical figure |
| Spartan society | Stratified into Spartiates (citizens with full rights), mothakes (free non-Spartiates), perioikoi (free non-citizens), and helots (enslaved non-citizens) |
| Spartiate rights | Full citizenship, military training, property rights for women, participation in syssitia (mess halls) |
| Spartan women | Allowed to own property, expected to practice sports before marriage, no formal political rights but encouraged to speak their minds |
| Spartan economy | Issuance of coinage forbidden, iron obols encouraged self-sufficiency and discouraged hoarding wealth |
| Land reform | Land divided into 9,000 equal portions, worked by helots who retained half the yield |
| Spartan constitution | Dual kingship, Council of Elders, Assembly, Ephors, Gerousia (oligarchic council) |
| Spartan education | Universal education, agoge (military training) |
| Spartan legal system | Oral tradition, no written laws, obedience to law (nomos) emphasized |
| Spartan social contract | Defined rights and duties of citizens, eliminated tyranny, paved way for democracy |
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What You'll Learn
Spartan society was stratified into four classes: Spartiates, mothakes, perioikoi and helots
Spartan society was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution, which were supposedly introduced by the semi-mythical legislator Lycurgus. His laws configured Spartan society to maximize military proficiency, focusing all social institutions on military training and physical development.
Spartan society was stratified into four classes: Spartiates, mothakes, perioikoi, and helots. Spartiates were Spartan citizens who enjoyed full rights. They were expected to maintain their fighting skills, show bravery in battle, ensure their farms were productive, be married, and have healthy children. Spartiate women were the only Greek women to hold property rights and were required to practice sports before marriage. Although they had no formal political rights, their opinions were expected to be voiced and heard.
Mothakes were non-Spartan, free men descended from Spartans but raised as Spartans. They were a permanent underclass in Spartan society and could never become citizens, despite some being sponsored into the agoge by wealthy Spartiates.
Perioikoi were free inhabitants but non-citizens of Sparta. They were not subjected to the same restrictions as the helots and served as a kind of military reserve, skilled craftsmen, and agents of foreign trade. They carried out most of the trade and commerce since Spartiates were forbidden from engaging in commercial activity.
Helots were state-owned serfs and part of the enslaved non-Spartan local population. They made up the majority of the Spartan population and were subjected to harsh treatment by the Spartiates, causing them to repeatedly revolt. They performed agricultural labour, spinning, weaving, and other manual labour. The land was worked by helots, who retained half the yield, with the other half going to the Spartiate.
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Lycurgus, the semi-mythical legislator
The ancient sources that mention Lycurgus describe him as a lawgiver and reformer, with Plutarch even piecing together accounts of Lycurgus' career, including a journey to Egypt and an introduction of Homer's poems to Sparta. Herodotus, Xenophon, and Plutarch have all attempted to explain Spartan exceptionalism as a result of the so-called Lycurgan Reforms. These reforms are said to have occurred in the mid-8th century BC, a period of lawlessness and civil strife in Sparta, and included a massive land reform that divided property into 9,000 equal portions, with each citizen receiving one estate, or "kleros".
Lycurgus is believed to have belonged to the Eurypontid house, one of the two houses that held Sparta's dual kingship, and to have been a regent for the Eurypontid king Charillus. This association with the Eurypontid house and his potential role as a regent suggest a level of political influence and proximity to power.
However, the existence of Lycurgus as a historical figure is questionable. Some scholars argue that the Spartan code of law and order was the result of a "coherent design" and adaptation over time, rather than the work of a single individual. The absence of written laws and records in Spartan society further complicates the matter, as it leaves little concrete evidence to support the existence of Lycurgus.
Despite the uncertainty surrounding his existence, Lycurgus has become a symbol of Spartan law and military prowess. He is credited with transforming Sparta into one of the most efficient military powers of Ancient Greece, implementing policies that expanded its borders and creating a "militaristic culture". The Spartan society under Lycurgus' laws was configured to maximize military proficiency, focusing all social institutions on military training and physical development. This unique social system, with its rigidly defined social classes, supported a strong hoplite army and set Sparta apart from other city-states in ancient Greece.
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Spartan laws were not written down
The Spartan system of government is known mostly from the Constitution of the Lacedaemonians, a treatise attributed to the ancient Greek historian Xenophon, which describes the institutions, customs, and practices of the ancient Spartans. According to Plutarch, Lycurgus, a mythical law-giver, established severe reforms for Sparta in the 9th century BC. Lycurgus first sought counsel from the god Apollo by obtaining an oracle from Delphi.
Sparta was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution, which were supposedly introduced by the semi-mythical legislator Lycurgus. His laws configured Spartan society to maximize military proficiency, focusing all social institutions on military training and physical development. The inhabitants of Sparta were stratified as Spartiates (citizens with full rights), mothakes (free non-Spartiate people descended from Spartans), perioikoi (free non-Spartiates), and helots (state-owned enslaved non-Spartan locals).
Several writers throughout antiquity, including Herodotus, Xenophon, and Plutarch, have attempted to explain Spartan exceptionalism as a result of the so-called Lycurgan Reforms. During the Second Messenian War, Sparta established itself as a local power in the Peloponnese and the rest of Greece. By the peak of its power around 500 BC, Sparta had some 20,000–35,000 citizens, plus numerous helots and perioikoi, making it one of the larger Greek city-states.
It is important to note that the absence of written laws in Sparta does not imply a complete lack of records. During the Roman period, the Boiotian author Plutarch consulted written laws and genealogies in Sparta. The so-called Great Rhetra, a text that may have been 700 years old at the time, is generally assumed to be a genuine preserved text. It is likely that Spartan laws and traditions were initially preserved orally and eventually written down as the society recognized the importance of codifying its laws for future reference.
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Spartan land reform
Spartan society is believed to have undergone a severe crisis in the late 8th or early 7th century BC, with a rebellion or civil war threatening the continued existence of the city-state. In response, the citizens of Sparta were prepared to accept radical new laws, which included a redistribution of land. This event is often attributed to the mythical figure of Lycurgus, a semi-mythical lawgiver. The land was divided into 9,000 equal plots, with each citizen receiving a plot, or estate, known as a kleros. These plots were designed to be sufficient to support a man and his family, with each citizen expected to produce enough food to contribute to the syssitia and pay the agoge fees for his sons.
The Spartan Constitution, or politeia, was noted for its unique features, including a rigidly layered social system and a strong hoplite army. Spartiates, or citizens with full rights, were expected to maintain their fighting skills, exhibit bravery in battle, ensure productive farms, marry, and have healthy children. Spartiate women were the only Greek women to hold property rights and were required to participate in sports before marriage. While they lacked formal political rights, their opinions were valued and they were encouraged to speak their minds.
The Spartan social system included several distinct classes, such as mothakes, perioikoi, and helots. Mothakes were free non-Spartiate individuals descended from Spartans, while perioikoi were free non-citizens who served as a military reserve, skilled craftsmen, and agents of foreign trade. Helots, on the other hand, were state-owned enslaved non-Spartan locals, making up the majority of the population.
By the mid-5th century BC, the equality of wealth established during the Lycurgan reforms had been eroded. Wealth became concentrated in the hands of a few elite families, and the notion of Spartan citizens being equals faded. In the 3rd century BC, Agis IV, a co-king of Sparta, attempted social reforms, including land redistribution, to rehabilitate the military strength of Sparta. Similarly, Cleomenes III, the son of Leonidas, resumed these reforms by redistributing land among all Spartiates capable of military service. He surrendered his land to the state and divided it into equal lots for every citizen.
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Spartan women had more rights than elsewhere in classical antiquity
Spartan women enjoyed more rights and freedoms than women in other Greek city-states during the Classical Period (5th-4th centuries BCE). They were famous for their independence and autonomy, and were brought up to believe that they had as much to contribute to the state as men. Spartan women could own land and property, manage their own properties, and inherit and bequeath property—rights that were not afforded to women in other parts of ancient Greece. They also received a formal education and were literate, unlike their Athenian counterparts.
Spartan women were expected to produce children, preferably male heirs to uphold the city's military might. However, they were not primarily responsible for domestic duties, as these tasks were performed by helots. Spartan women were encouraged to participate in athletic competitions and were expected to be physically fit. They were also allowed to speak their minds and express their opinions, although they lacked formal political rights.
The reforms attributed to the semi-mythical legislator Lycurgus in the 9th century BC are believed to have shaped Spartan society and its unique social system and constitution. These reforms covered various aspects of Spartan life, including land ownership, dining, marriage, and child-rearing. Spartan society was divided into three main classes: the Spartans (citizens), the Perioeci (craftsmen), and the Helots (serfs or slaves). Spartan women belonged to the citizen group and followed the social hierarchy, adhering to a simple and austere lifestyle.
While Athenian women were considered second-class citizens, Spartan women enjoyed greater independence. They also married later, typically between the ages of 18 and 20. They were also known for their pride in raising strong and independent children. The philosopher Aristotle criticised the independence and influence of Spartan women, claiming that nature intended for men to rule over women. However, there is evidence suggesting that the equality of the sexes in Sparta contributed to the strength and efficiency of the city-state.
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Frequently asked questions
The semi-mythical figure Lycurgus is credited with creating the Spartan Constitution and the Spartan way of life.
Lycurgus' laws were designed to maximise military proficiency, focusing Spartan society on military training and physical development. He also reorganised Spartan military life, instituted the syssitia (mess halls), and ensured an austere lifestyle for Spartans by banning the use of gold and silver coins.
No, the Spartans had no written laws, literature, or historical records, which were prohibited by ordinance of Lycurgus. However, some written records were consulted by Plutarch during the Roman period.
