Cameron Miranda
Ancient Egyptian law was based on the cultural value of 'ma'at' or harmony, which was believed to have been handed down by the gods. The law was governed by religious principles, with the king or pharaoh at the top of the judicial hierarchy, representing divine justice. Beneath the pharaoh was the vizier, who was responsible for the practical administration of justice and appointed lower magistrates. While no formal Egyptian code of law has been preserved, ancient Egyptian law is considered one of the world's oldest surviving legal systems, with basic laws in place as early as the Predynastic Period (c. 6000 - c. 3150 BCE).
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Basis | Religious principles |
| Ultimate authority | Pharaoh |
| Next most powerful individual | Vizier |
| Basis of law | Ma'at (harmony) |
| Level of development | Comparable to ancient Greek and medieval law |
| Earliest form | Simple, becoming more bureaucratic during the Old Kingdom |
| Judges | Priests |
| Police force | First created during the Middle Kingdom |
| Rights of women | Full rights, including owning and bequeathing property, filing lawsuits, and bearing witness in court |
| Rights of working class and slaves | Allowed to own property under certain circumstances |
| Example of a lawgiver | Pharaoh Bocchoris |
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What You'll Learn
The role of the king and the pharaoh
The king or pharaoh was at the top of the judicial hierarchy in ancient Egypt, serving as the representative of the gods and their divine justice. The king was seen as a divine intermediary between the gods and the Egyptian people, guaranteeing agricultural prosperity, defending the territory, and ensuring impartial justice.
As the chief of the armies, the pharaoh was also the protector of Egypt's borders, defending against invading armies and internal rebels. The pharaoh was considered victorious in all military endeavours. They were also responsible for maintaining religious harmony and participating in ceremonies as the head of religion.
The pharaoh appointed a vizier, or "Vizier of Justice", also referred to as the "Priest of Ma'at", to oversee the practical administration of justice and to maintain the principles of Ma'at, which were central to the legal system. The vizier heard court cases, appointed lower magistrates, and sometimes got involved with local courts.
While the role of the king and the pharaoh in law-making was significant, it is important to note that no formal Egyptian code of law has been preserved. However, it is clear that laws existed and were based on religious principles handed down by the gods. The king or pharaoh's role was to uphold these laws and ensure harmony and order in society, with punishments for infractions being severe.
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Religious principles and the gods
Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals that formed an integral part of ancient Egyptian culture. It centred on the Egyptians' interactions with many deities believed to be present and in control of the world. The religion had its roots in Egypt's prehistory and lasted for 3,500 years. The details of religious belief changed over time as the importance of particular gods rose and declined, and their intricate relationships shifted.
The Egyptian language possessed no single term corresponding to the concept of religion. Ancient Egyptian religion consisted of a vast and varying set of beliefs and practices, linked by their common focus on the interaction between the world of humans and the divine. The characteristics of the gods were inextricably linked to the Egyptians' understanding of the properties of the world in which they lived. The Egyptians believed that the phenomena of nature were divine forces in and of themselves. These deified forces included the elements, animal characteristics, or abstract forces. The Egyptians believed in a pantheon of gods, which were involved in all aspects of nature and human society.
There were two essential foci of public religion: the king and the gods. The king had a unique status between humanity and the gods, partook in the world of the gods, and constructed great, religiously motivated funerary monuments for his afterlife. Egyptian gods are renowned for their wide variety of forms, including animal forms and mixed forms with an animal head on a human body.
The ultimate authority in the settlement of disputes was the pharaoh, whose decrees were supreme. The pharaoh was believed to possess divine powers by virtue of their position. They acted as intermediaries between their people and the gods and were obligated to sustain the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain Ma'at, the order of the cosmos, and repel Isfet, which was chaos. The sun god Ra, the creator god Amun, and the mother goddess Isis were among the most important deities in Egyptian religion.
The law in ancient Egypt was governed by religious principles. It was believed that the laws were handed down to mankind by the gods on the First Occasion (the moment of creation), and the gods were held responsible for establishing and perpetuating the law. The king was the representative of the gods and their divine justice, and just beneath him was his vizier, who was responsible for the practical administration of justice. Judges were often priests who conferred with their god to reach a verdict rather than weighing the evidence and listening to testimonies.
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The vizier and other officials
Ancient Egyptian law was based on the central cultural value of "ma'at," which can be translated as "harmony." This concept of harmony was believed to have been instituted by the gods at the beginning of time, and it was thought that living in accordance with ma'at would bring peace with oneself, one's community, and the gods.
While no formal Egyptian code of law has been preserved, the legal system was governed by religious principles and the ultimate authority in the settlement of disputes was the pharaoh, who was considered the representative of the gods and their divine justice. The pharaoh's decrees were supreme, and he delegated powers to provincial governors and other officials.
The most powerful individual after the pharaoh was the vizier, who directed all administrative branches of the government and was responsible for the practical administration of justice. The vizier heard court cases, appointed lower magistrates, and sometimes involved himself with local courts. In cases of serious crimes, the vizier conducted the investigation and turned to the pharaoh for final judgment.
Below the vizier were the provincial governors, or "nomarchs," who presided over the legal system at the regional level, in individual districts called "nomes." The legal system at this level was likely quite simple during the early periods, becoming more bureaucratic during the Old Kingdom. Judges during this time were often priests who conferred with their gods to reach a verdict. It was only during the Middle Kingdom that professional judges were installed to preside over courts, and the system began to operate on a more rational, recognizable paradigm.
The ancient Egyptian legal system also included a professional police force, which enforced the law, took suspects into custody, and testified in court. While no Egyptian law code has been found, it is clear that one must have existed by the Early Dynastic Period, as precedent in deciding legal cases was already being used during the early years of the Old Kingdom.
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Basic human rights
Ancient Egyptian law was based on the central cultural value of 'ma'at', or harmony, which was believed to have been instituted by the gods at the moment of creation. The ultimate authority in the settlement of disputes was the pharaoh, who was considered the representative of the gods and their divine justice on Earth. The pharaoh's decrees were supreme, and he could appoint a special commission with full authority to pass judgment. Below the pharaoh was the vizier, who was responsible for the practical administration of justice, and who heard court cases, appointed lower magistrates, and sometimes involved himself with local courts.
Although no formal Egyptian code of law has been preserved, ancient Egyptian law is admired for its support of basic human rights. For example, women were granted full rights under the laws of ancient Egypt. They owned and bequeathed property, filed lawsuits, and bore witness in court proceedings without the authority of their father or husband. The working class also had some legal rights, and even slaves were allowed to own property under certain circumstances.
The law in ancient Egypt also allowed individuals to determine restrictions and guarantees in their transactions concerning possible defects in the property or service, as well as defects in the law. Furthermore, although masculine primogeniture dominated in some periods, there are records of property being divided equally among the children, male and female. Even when primogeniture was practised, the other children and the surviving spouse usually received a share of the estate. A parent could also guarantee their daughter's rights over the family property.
The ancient Egyptians often recorded images of the king on their temples and tombs as he presented the symbol of justice and law, in a clear reference to the reverence of the concepts and values of justice and the rule of law in the ancient Egyptian civilisation.
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The earliest laws and their development
Ancient Egyptian culture and its legal system were underpinned by tradition and religious principles. Basic laws and legal prescriptions were in place in Egypt as early as the Predynastic Period (c. 6000–c. 3150 BCE). The law was based on the central cultural value of 'ma'at' (harmony), which was instituted at the beginning of time by the gods. The principle of ma'at dictated that living a life of consideration, mindfulness, and balance would bring peace with oneself, one's community, and the gods.
The law in ancient Egypt was formulated by men who were considered experts in the field, and it was governed by religious principles. At the top of the judicial hierarchy was the king or pharaoh, the representative of the gods and their divine justice. Below the king or pharaoh was the vizier, who was responsible for the practical administration of justice. The vizier heard court cases, appointed lower magistrates, and sometimes involved himself with local courts. The legal system formed regionally in individual districts (called nomes) and was presided over by the governor (nomarch) and his steward.
Although no formal Egyptian code of law has been preserved, several pharaohs, such as Bocchoris (c. 722–c. 715 BC), were known as lawgivers. After the 7th century BC, when the Demotic language came into use, many legal transactions required written deeds or contracts instead of oral agreements. These extant documents have been studied for what they reveal about ancient Egyptian law. The ultimate authority in the settlement of disputes was the pharaoh, whose decrees were supreme. The pharaoh Bocchoris, for example, promoted individual rights, suppressed imprisonment for debt, and reformed laws relating to the transfer of property.
The Egyptian legal system was well-developed and complex, comparable to ancient Greek and medieval law. The earliest form of the law at the regional level was probably quite simple but became more bureaucratic during the Old Kingdom. During the Middle Kingdom, professional judges were installed to preside over courts, and the first professional police force was created to enforce the law, take suspects into custody, and testify in court.
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Frequently asked questions
Ancient Egyptian law was based on the central cultural value of ma'at (harmony), which was instituted at the beginning of time by the gods. The king or pharaoh was seen as the representative of the gods and their divine justice, and was at the top of the judicial hierarchy.
Basic laws and legal prescriptions were in place in Egypt as early as the Predynastic Period (c. 6000–c. 3150 BCE). The legal system formed regionally at first, in individual districts called nomes, and was presided over by the governor (nomarch) and their steward. Over time, the system became more bureaucratic, and during the Middle Kingdom, the first professional judges and police force were introduced.
The vizier, who was second only to the pharaoh, was responsible for the practical administration of justice. They heard court cases, appointed lower magistrates, and sometimes got involved with local courts. In some cases, the pharaoh appointed a special commission with full authority to pass judgment.
