Cecily Zamora
John Locke (1632–1704) is considered one of the most influential political philosophers of the modern era. His views on taxation are outlined in his 2d Treatise on Government: Of Civil Government, Chapter XI (“Of the Extent of the Legislative Power”), Sections 138-140. Locke's philosophy centres on the idea that governments cannot take a man's property without his consent, and as such, taxes must be approved by a majority vote of the populace or their representatives. Locke's views have been interpreted as libertarian, with the government having no right to take property for the common good without the consent of the property owner. However, some argue that taxation is immoral and a form of theft, a view often held by anarcho-capitalists, objectivists, and right-wing libertarians.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| John Locke's view on the purpose of taxes | John Locke takes for granted the necessity of taxes but stipulates three conditions for taxes and other government appropriations of property to be legitimate. |
| John Locke's view on the source of government authority | In the 17th century, John Locke took the position in the Second Treatise of Government that government authority arises from the consent of the governed, and not through the divine right of kings. |
| John Locke's view on the legitimacy of taxation | John Locke's most important stipulation is about the legitimate purposes of taxation. |
| John Locke's view on the role of the populace | The taxes must be approved by some kind of majority vote of the populace representatives of the populace who still have the interests of the populace at heart. |
| John Locke's view on the benefits of taxation | The taxes must be for the good of the nation as a whole or at least include among their beneficiaries many who are not themselves politically powerful. |
| John Locke's view on property rights | John Locke argues that people have rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and property, that have a foundation independent of the laws of any particular society. |
| John Locke's view on the limits of property rights | Persons do not have a right to more property than they can make use of. |
| John Locke's view on the role of government | Where a government exceeds these limits, Locke says people are justified in rebelling against the government. |
| John Locke's view on the economic theory | Locke argues that the end of trade is "riches and power" – and trade increases a nation’s wealth and its people, producing a virtuous circle of economic improvement. |
| John Locke's view on moral law | The moral law is a fixed and permanent set of morals, for “what is proper now for the rational nature [of man] … must needs be proper for ever, and the same reason will pronounce everywhere the same moral rules.” |
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What You'll Learn
John Locke's view on the necessity of taxes
John Locke (1632–1704) is considered one of the most influential political philosophers of the modern period. In his work, Locke defended the notion that people are naturally free and equal, and that they have rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and property, that exist independently of any particular society's laws.
Locke's views on taxation are outlined in his 2d Treatise on Government: Of Civil Government, Chapter XI (“Of the Extent of the Legislative Power”), Sections 138-140. Locke acknowledges the necessity of taxes but sets out three conditions for taxes and other government appropriations of property to be considered legitimate. Firstly, he argues that taxes cannot be so high that individuals would be better off outside of the nation or social contract. Secondly, taxes must be approved by a majority vote of representatives of the populace who have the interests of the people at heart. Lastly, taxes must be for the good of the nation as a whole or benefit those who are not politically powerful.
Locke's belief in the necessity of consent from the majority is further evidenced in his writings, where he states that if any individual or group claims the power to levy taxes without the consent of the people, they "invade the fundamental law of property and subvert the end of government". This idea is central to Locke's philosophy, which holds that the government exists by the consent of the people to protect their rights and promote the public good.
While Locke's views on the legitimate purposes of taxation are not explicit, he provides a parable to illustrate his point: a general can order a soldier to risk their life for a public purpose, such as defending the nation, but cannot legitimately take money from the soldier for personal gain. This suggests that Locke saw taxation as justified when it served the common good or public purpose, rather than for the enrichment of a select few.
Some interpretations of Locke's philosophy view him as a libertarian, arguing that the government has no right to take property for the common good without the consent of the property owner. However, Locke's labor theory of value, which justifies private ownership, is subject to criticism that it creates a lien for the benefit of the public, indicating a potential role for taxation in his philosophy.
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The consent of the majority
John Locke, one of the most influential political philosophers of the modern period, believed that taxation required the consent of the majority. In his work, he defended the notion that individuals are naturally free and equal, contrary to the belief that a monarch is naturally superior. Locke's philosophy asserts that people have rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and property, that exist independently of societal laws.
Locke's concept of consent is central to his political philosophy. He argued that legitimate political governments emerge from a social contract, where individuals in the state of nature voluntarily transfer some of their rights to the government. This contract is established to ensure the protection of their lives, liberty, and property, as well as to promote the public good. Locke's theory suggests that governments are formed by the consent of the people, and therefore, any taxation must also be approved by the majority of the populace or their elected representatives.
In his writings, Locke emphasizes the importance of representative democracy. He believed that the legislative power should include an assembly of elected representatives, who have the interests of the people at heart. This democratic governance ensures that taxes are levied with the consent of the majority and are used for the benefit of the nation as a whole, rather than just the politically powerful. Locke's ideas have had a significant impact, and many countries now enjoy democratic control over taxation and government spending.
However, some critics argue that taxation without unanimous consent violates individual property rights. This view, often held by anarcho-capitalists, objectivists, and libertarians, considers taxation as a form of theft. They believe that the government transgresses property rights by enforcing compulsory tax collection, regardless of the amount. Additionally, some critics, like Michael Huemer, advocate for "natural property rights" that are independent of state-determined laws.
Despite these criticisms, Locke's philosophy on taxation and the consent of the majority has had a lasting influence on democratic societies. His ideas have shaped the understanding of legitimate taxation and the role of government in representing the interests of the populace.
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The purpose of taxes
John Locke, one of the most influential political philosophers, believed that taxes were necessary but had to be legitimate. He argued that people have rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and property, that are independent of the laws of society. In his view, legitimate political government arises from a social contract where people transfer some of their rights to the government to ensure the stable enjoyment of their lives, liberty, and property.
Locke's philosophy emphasizes the importance of consent, specifically majority consent, in taxation. He believed that taxes could only be levied with the consent of the governed, and that they should not be so high that individuals would be better off outside of the nation. This perspective challenges the notion that governments can arbitrarily dispose of citizens' property.
Additionally, Locke's labor theory of value suggests that individuals can take land or property from the common pool, but it is subject to a lien for the benefit of the public. This implies that taxation can be justified as a way to ensure that wealth accumulation serves the public good, especially when public services like education and infrastructure enable wealth creation.
While some view taxation as theft, Locke's philosophy provides a framework for understanding the legitimate purpose of taxes. His ideas have influenced debates about government expenditures and the democratic governance of taxes and spending.
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Taxation as theft
The notion of "taxation as theft" is found in several political philosophies, notably those of anarcho-capitalists, objectivists, right-wing libertarians, and voluntaryists. This view holds that taxation violates the non-aggression principle and that the government infringes on property rights by enforcing compulsory tax collection.
The idea that taxation is theft can be traced back to the political philosopher John Locke, who argued that government authority arises from the consent of the governed. In his "Two Treatises of Government", Locke asserted that men are naturally free and equal, and that they possess rights to life, liberty, and property that are independent of societal laws. According to Locke, taxation can only be legitimate if it meets certain conditions. Firstly, he believed that taxation must be approved by a majority vote or their representatives, as long as the interests of the populace are considered. Secondly, taxes should be for the good of the nation as a whole or benefit those who are not politically powerful. Lastly, he emphasized that taxation without the consent of the people violates the fundamental law of property.
Lysander Spooner, a 19th-century lawyer and political philosopher, supported Locke's ideas. In his essay "No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority", Spooner argued that a social contract cannot justify governmental actions such as taxation, as it would initiate force against those who do not consent to the contract. Similarly, Murray Rothbard contended that tax resistance is legitimate, comparing the state's collection of taxes to a robber demanding valuables from a house.
However, defenders of taxation refute the notion that taxation is theft. They argue that the concepts of legal private property rights and theft are defined by the state's legal framework, and therefore, taxation does not violate property law unless the tax itself is illegal. Additionally, they contend that taxation does not take away pre-existing entitlements, as property rights are shaped by laws and conventions, including taxation itself. Proponents of taxation also highlight the social contract theory, which suggests that the public has implicitly agreed to allocate a portion of their wealth for public use in exchange for the opportunity to accumulate wealth. Institutions like the IMF and economists like Alex Cobham support this view, arguing that since public services and infrastructure enable wealth creation, a portion of those economic gains should fund basic provisions for future economic growth.
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The role of government in tax collection
John Locke, one of the most influential political philosophers, argued that men are naturally free and equal, and that they have rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and property. These rights, according to Locke, are independent of the laws of any particular society. In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke defended the claim that legitimate political government is the result of a social contract, where people in the state of nature conditionally transfer some of their rights to the government to ensure the stable and comfortable enjoyment of their lives, liberty, and property.
Locke's views on taxation are centred around the idea of consent. He believed that the government cannot take a man's property without his consent and, therefore, taxes must be approved by a majority vote of the populace or their representatives, who still have the interests of the people at heart. This is because, without consent, the government invades the fundamental law of property and subverts its own end. Locke also stipulated that taxes should not be so high that individuals would be better off in a state of nature rather than as taxpayers within the nation.
The role of the government in tax collection, according to Lockean philosophy, is therefore constrained by the need for consent from the governed. The government must ensure that taxes are fair and just, benefiting the nation as a whole, and not just the politically powerful. Locke's ideas have influenced the development of democratic governance of taxes and government spending in many countries.
However, some critics argue that taxation is a form of theft and a violation of property rights. They claim that the government transgresses property rights by enforcing compulsory tax collection, regardless of the amount. This view is often held by anarcho-capitalists, objectivists, and right-wing libertarians, who see taxation as a breach of the non-aggression principle.
In conclusion, the role of the government in tax collection, as envisioned by John Locke, is limited by the need for consent from the governed. Taxes must be fair and just, and in the interest of the public good, rather than arbitrary impositions on the people's property. Locke's ideas continue to shape debates about the legitimate purposes and procedures of taxation in modern societies.
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Frequently asked questions
No, John Locke takes for granted the necessity of taxes. However, he does set out three conditions for taxes and other government appropriations of property to be legitimate.
The first condition is that taxes cannot be so high that some individuals would be better off in the state of nature than as taxpayers. The second condition is that taxes must be approved by a majority vote of the populace representatives, who still have the interests of the populace at heart. The third condition is that taxes must be for the good of the nation as a whole or at least include among their beneficiaries many who are not themselves politically powerful.
John Locke believed that the government cannot take a man's property without his consent. Therefore, taxes can only be levied with the consent of the governed, or the consent of the majority.
The view that "taxation is theft" is found in a number of political philosophies, including anarcho-capitalism, objectivism, and right-wing libertarianism. Proponents of this view see taxation as a violation of the non-aggression principle and believe that rightful ownership of property should be based on "natural property rights" rather than those determined by the state.
